THE WHOLE STORY OF ROME

I want to express in a few words a historic reunion of a city that dates back to around 753 BC, with the foundation of a small village on the Italian peninsula. Although the foundation took place in the 8th century BC, the oldest written record is that established by the historian Marcus Terentius Varro (116 BC - 27 BC) during the reign of Augustus, about 500 years after the fact. Over time, Rome became the center of a vast civilization that dominated the Mediterranean region for centuries, and that would be overthrown by some Germanic tribes, ushering in the historiographical era of the Middle Ages. Let's see that we are fully showing a rich history that begins in a very ancient time and that its particularities show us that there has been a great development in which art as well as politics plays a great role in the history of the Roman that we can understand today. its values and deep mysteries that make us emphasize a true custom and love for Rome and that Rome is simply a warrior city that has always played a great relativity with man and with the gods that we can believe in its words and constructions of a great people that shows us today a more fertile and stronger dignity under a great dominion and military force over a large region that has transformed us and made us believe under its influences and customs that we can fully know in art and culture, both political and artistic, which has shown itself to be a great role for the whole world in which cinema portrays us and the world has become a grand triumphal scale for sure. the films and great stories that make me understand the culture and the story told in the background of a certain poster that we hide the knowledge and the unfolding through art and culture and that today we can understand where the world began and its variable ways of living and that there are great magical processes in everyone's dreams that culture unfolds in us and makes us contemplate a great desire for our ancestors and that culture today is more realistic from our point of view in which we strive to preserve before everything a very fine role in socialist development in which we can say that Rome has class, it is meaning of love, it is glory and work and development and that I want to show in full here now all its history in which we are conserved in time and in the past and today we understand its origin much more classic and better from his reign until he matured with life in general.

Theater of Ancient Rome

Roman mosaic depicting actors and an aulos player (House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii) The theater of Ancient Rome was a diverse artistic modality, ranging from street theater and acrobatics at festivals to the staging of the comedies of Plautus and Terence and the tragedies of Seneca. Although Rome had a tradition of performance of its own, cultural Hellenization in the 3rd century BC. it had a profound and energizing effect on the theater of that civilization, spurring the development of high-quality literature conducive to acting. The historian Livy postulated that the Romans first experienced theatrical art in the 4th century BC, through a performance by Etruscan actors. Beacham argues that this civilization would have known "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before recorded. Roman drama began to develop in 240 BC, with productions by Livy Andronicus. This modality endured in popularity into late antiquity, through the mid-4th century CE, with 102 of 176 public ludos having been devoted to the theatre, in addition to considerably fewer gladiatorial events and chariot races. kingdom of rome Kingdom of Rome (Latin: Regnum Romanum), also known as Roman monarchy or royal period, is the expression used by convention to define the Roman monarchic state from its origin (21 April 753 BC) until the fall of royalty in 509 BC Documentation of this period is precarious and even the names of the kings are uncertain, citing only the legendary kings, presented in the works of Virgil (Aeneid) and Livy (Ab Urbe condita libri). Its origins are unclear, although it seems clear that it was the first form of city government, a fact that archeology and linguistics seem to confirm. According to legendary tradition, Rome was ruled by seven kings.[a] The ancients attribute to each sovereign an innovation for the formation of Roman institutions: Romulus (r. 753–717 BC) founded the city and kidnapped the Sabine women; Numa Pompilius (r. 717–673 BC) created religious institutions, priesthoods and rites; Tullius Hostilius (r. 673–642 BC) destroyed Alba Longa; Anco Marcius (r. 640–616 BC) founded the colony of Ostia; Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616–579 BC) undertook major building work in Rome; Servius Tullius (r. 578–535 BC) divided Roman society into census classes; and Tarquinius the Superb (r. 534–509BC) represented the typical Roman tyrant. The king (rex) accumulated executive, judicial, legislative and religious functions. Ratification of laws was carried out by the Assembly of the Curia, composed of all citizens of military age (up to 45 years), and the senate, or "council of elders", acted as a royal council and chose new kings. In the final phase of royalty, from the end of the 7th century BC, Rome was dominated by the Etruscans. They influenced the Romans both culturally (spreading the use of robes, religious practices and worshiping new gods) and materially (expanding trade and creating drainage channels to dry local swamps). The traditional chronicles, which reached the present day through authors such as Livy, Plutarch, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, among others, tell that there was a succession of seven kings. The traditional chronology, narrated by Marcus Terencius Varro, shows that these reigns lasted 243 years, that is, there is an average of 35 years per reign (much longer than any documented dynasty), still reevaluated today, since the work of Barthold Georg Niebuhr. The reigns of the first monarchs raise great doubts to historians, due to their great average duration and the fact that some appear to be rounded. Foundation Legend Aeneas carrying Anchises (Enochoa with Attic black painting c. 520−510 BC), Louvre Museum Verse from a Roman didrachma, anonymous author (ca. 269-266 BC) In Virgil's Aeneid and in Livy's Ab Urbe condita libri, Aeneas, son of the goddess Venus, flees from Troy with his father Anchises, his son Ascanius and the survivors of the city. With this he makes several pilgrimages that eventually take him to Lazio, in Italy, where he is received by the local king, Latino, who offers the hand of his daughter, Lavinia. This provokes the fury of the Rutulian king Turnus, a powerful Italic monarch who had taken an interest in her. A terrible war between the populations of the peninsula breaks out and as a result, Turno is killed. Aeneas, now married, founds the city of Lavinium in honor of his wife. His son, Ascânio, rules the city for thirty years until he decides to move and found his own city, Alba Longa. Some 400 years later, the son and legitimate heir of the twelfth king of Alba Longa, Numitor, is deposed by a ruse by his brother Amulius. In order to secure the throne, Amulius murders the male descendants of Numitor and forces his niece Rhea Silvia to become a vestal (virgin priestess, consecrated to the goddess Vesta), however, she becomes pregnant with the god Mars and from this union the brothers Romulus and Remus (born March 771 BC). As punishment, Amulius locks Rhea in a dungeon and has his children thrown into the Tiber River. Miraculously, the basket in which the children were kept gets stuck on one of the banks of the river at the foot of Palatine Hill, where they are found by a she-wolf who suckles them; next to the children was a woodpecker, a bird sacred to the Latins and to the god Mars, who protects them. Some time later, a shepherd named Fáustulo finds the boys near the foot of the Ruminal Fig Tree (Ficus Ruminalis), at the entrance of a cave called Lupercal. He collects them and takes them to his home where they are raised by his wife Aca Larência. Rômulo and Remo grew up with the region's shepherds practicing hunting, running and physical exercise; they looted the caravans that passed through the region looking for booty. In one of the robberies, Remo is captured and taken to Alba Longa. Fáustulo then reveals to Romulus the story of his origin. He leaves for the city of his ancestors, frees his brother, kills Amulius, restores Numitor to the throne and gives his mother all the honors that were due her. Realizing that they would have no future in the city, the twins decide to leave the city along with all the undesirables to then found a new city in the place where they were abandoned. Romulus wanted to call it Rome and build it on the Palatine, while Remus wanted to name it Remora and found it on the Aventine. As a way of deciding, it was established that it should be indicated through the auspices, who would be chosen to name the new city and reign after the foundation. This generated disagreement among the spectators, which led to a fierce argument between the brothers that ended with Remo's death. An alternative version claims that, in order to surprise his brother, Remus would have climbed the city's newly built quadrangular pomerium and taken it in a rage, Romulus would have murdered him. Archeology Map of the Seven Hills of Rome Primitive huts found on Palatine Hill (8th century BC) Classical authors such as Livy, Plutarch and Dionysius of Halicarnassus based their accounts on fragments of works by older writers, such as Hellanicus of Mytilene, a Greek author of the 5th century BC. In addition, these authors have tried to find rational explanations for unlikely passages in the city's creation myth, such as the capitoline wolf. The Romans designate We go by the same word, lupa, the female wolf and the whore. Thus, historians claim that in reality the twins' mistress would have been Aca Larência, wife of Fáustulo, who would have worked as a prostitute. The first inhabitants of Rome, the Latins and Sabines, are part of the group of Indo-European populations originating in Central Europe who came to the Italian peninsula in successive waves in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC; Old Latium (Latium Vetus) was the former territory of the Latins, now southern Latium; in case of danger, the Latin Sabine dwellings united in confederations to face their enemies. The hills of Rome began to be occupied at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC; archaeological remains dated between the 14th-10th centuries BC. are the first evidence of habitation on the Palatine. Three successive, overlapping walled enclosures have been dated at the site, two to the 8th-7th centuries BC. and one of the 7th-6th centuries BC. Localization Rome grew up on the left bank of a navigable stretch of the Tiber River, about 25 kilometers from its mouth, therefore with easy access to the Tyrrhenian Sea. It had the advantages of both a maritime and an inland position. Situated about twenty kilometers from the Alban hills, which constitute a natural defence, on a plain far enough from the sea, the city need not fear incursions from pirates. Furthermore, both the river itself (and the Tiber Island) and the Capitoline and Palatine Hills operated as easily defensible natural citadels. However, Rome's greatest asset in terms of its location was its proximity to the River Tiber. This played a fundamental role in the economic development of the city because the goods that came from the sea had to go up the course of the river to be directed either to Etruria or to the Greek Campania (Magna Grecia). In this way, Rome was able to monopolize land traffic, as it was situated at the intersection of the main roads in the Italian interior. In addition, as there are important salt pans in the vicinity of the city, Rome managed to become the perfect market for the "salt road", later known as via Salaria. Development Terracotta burial urn dating from the 8th century BC. found in Lazio. Its form would be an artistic representation of the dwellings of the period. More information here Rome initially was a small town or group of towns situated on the Palatine and neighboring hills. Its population revolved around a few hundred inhabitants who based their economy on agriculture (wheat, barley, peas, beans), livestock (goats, pigs), fishing, hunting and gathering; the manufacture of ceramic articles, clothes and other articles of domestic use were produced by the families for internal consumption; there was no defined social stratification. from ca. 770 BC archaeological sites in the region, especially necropolises, began to show a greater number of human remains, which indicates human growth, external influences derived from commercial contacts, especially with the Greek colonies of Campania, greater artisanal specialization (use of potter's wheel) , and the emergence of economically differentiated social classes; such processes intensified between the end of the 8th century and the 7th century BC. Many graves of the period, found in several places in Lazio, contain individuals with ornaments that emphasize their wealth, which can be understood as evidence of the progressive formation of a dominant aristocracy, which controlled the means of production, as well as the surplus, acquiring a hereditary characteristic in the maintenance of power. In this context, many settlements show notable growth, becoming centers of power that were fortified with terraces and pits (remains of a wall dating from 730 BC were found in the northeast in the Palatine); Rome, once a small settlement on the Palatine, encompassed the mid-7th century BC. the Forum Valley, the Quirinal, part of the Esquiline and the Célio. At the end of the 7th century BC. archaeological evidence points to an intense urbanization process: huts were replaced by more solid houses (stone foundations, wooden structures and tile roofing); a public square was opened in the Forum; traces of public buildings, shrines and temples were detected along with tiles, terracotta and decorative friezes. Society Depiction of a Roman family, Vatican Museum The Roman social base was the gentes (clans), kinship associations between families who believed they were descended from common ancestors who, in order to express their relationship, used the same name. Under these conditions, each member of a gente (the "gentle") had two names, a personal one (given name; eg Marco, Cneu, Tito) and a gentilicium (name; eg Márcio, Névio, Tacio); Due to the autonomy evidence that the people had in the social context, it is speculated that they existed since before the formation of the Roma State. Each family that made up the people was controlled by a respective pater familias who exercised absolute power (in potestate) over their property, animals, slaves, children and wife; Based on his power (patria potestas), the pater familias had the right to kill or sell any member of his family, represented him in his relations with other families and the community, and performed rites and sacrifices in honor of ancestors and gods. Thus, even adults, their children did not acquire legal autonomy until the death of the pater familias, when in their own right they were considered patres familiarum. From the term pater, the term patrician was coined, the name of the dominant social stratum in Rome. This layer boasted a greater number of herds, lands and slaves, in the same way that they had the right to exercise public, military, religious, legal and administrative functions; sometimes they appropriated the ager publicus, lands that belonged to the government. Below the patricians was the clientele (singular: client), a class made up of plebeians, freed slaves, foreigners or illegitimate children who associated with patricians providing them with various services in exchange for economic aid and social protection. This relationship between patricians and clientele was based mainly on moral rather than legal connotations, since the clients enjoyed the "trust" (fides) of their masters. The clientele had among its obligations the cultivation of part of the patricians' lands, as well as the provision of military services. The greater the number of clients under a patrician's protection, the greater his social and political prestige. The plebeians (from plebs, multitude) were peasants, small farmers, artisans, and merchants. In the monarchic period, plebeians did not have political rights, although they were subject to a tax burden and military obligations. Marriage between plebeians and patricians was prohibited to avoid mixing of both social classes. On the threshold of the Roman social pyramid were the slaves who were defeated in war or commoners in debt. In the case of commoners, slavery could occur in two ways. The first occurred when an impoverished family sold its own children as slaves. The second was a form of debt payment, that is, the debtor, unable to pay off his debts, could become a slave to the creditor. They were seen as instruments of work, being considered as the property of their lord, and could be sold, exchanged, rented or punished. As a slave, the person did not have any rights, such as the right to marry, move from one place to another, participate in assemblies and make decisions. During the monarchy they were few in number. Roman women, matrons (matronae), had the right to own property, be educated, and participate more actively in social activities such as banquets and election campaigns. political institutions Senate Cicero denounces Catiline, a fresco depicting the Roman Senate meeting in the Curia Hostilia. Palazzo Madama, Rome The Latin term senātus is derived from senex, meaning "old man". Therefore, senate literally means "council of elders". Its origin possibly stems from the tribal structure of Latium communities in which there was often an aristocratic council of tribal elders. Early Roman families were denoted gentes or clans that were ruled by a patriarch, the "father" (pater). When these first families came together to form Rome, the patriarchs of the main gentiles were selected to participate in a council of elders (the future senate). Over time, however, they recognized the need for a single leader, leading him to elect a king (rex) and invest his sovereign power in him. When the king died, power would naturally revert to them. The senate had three main responsibilities: it functioned as the ultimate repository for the executive power, advisor to the king, and as a legislative body in tune with the people of Rome. Roman senators met in a temple (templum) or any other place that had been consecrated by a religious official (augur). During the monarchy the most important function of the senate was to select new kings. The period between the death of one king and the election of the next was known as the interregnum. When a king died, a member of the senate (the inter-rei) appointed a candidate to replace him. In the first interregnum, which took place after the disappearance of Romulus, the senate, which then consisted of one hundred men, was divided into ten decurias, each governed by a decurion who acted as inter-king for five days. For a year the decuries alternated in power until the new king was acclaimed. After the senate gave its initial approval of the candidate, he was formally elected by the people and would then receive final approval from the senate. Thus, despite the king being officially elected by the people, effectively the decision was made by the senate. The senate's most significant role besides royal elections was that of advisory council to the king. Although the king was not bound by the senatorial council, the senate's growing prestige made his council increasingly reckless. Technically, the senate could make laws, although it would be incorrect to view senate decrees as legislation in the modern sense. Only the king could enact new laws, although he often involved both the senate and the curial assembly (popular assembly) in the process. However, the king was free to ignore any decision the senate had passed. legislative assemblies Servian Wall (in red) and its respective gates Legislative assemblies were the main institutions. One of them, the curial assembly, although it had some legislative powers, had only the right to symbolically ratify decrees issued by the king. The functions of another, the "Quiet Assembly" (comitia calata), were purely religious. In this period all the citizens of Rome, that is, individuals of military age (up to 45 years old), were divided into a total of 30 curias, the basic units of division in the two popular assemblies. The members of each curia would vote, and then the majority would determine how the curia would vote before the assembly. The curia assembly (comitia curiata) was the only popular assembly with any political significance during the Kingdom of Rome. The king presided over the assembly, and submitted decrees for the assembly to ratify. An inter-king presided over the assembly during the inter-king periods. After the selection of a new king and the initial approval of the senate was conceived, the interroy held the formal election before the assembly of the curiae. The new king interpreted the auspices (omens of the gods), and if these were favorable, legal powers (the lex curiata de imperio) were granted to the candidate. On the Calendas (first day of the month) and on the Nonas (fifth or seventh day of the month), this assembly met to hear announcements. Appeals heard by the curial assembly often dealt with issues relating to family law. During two fixed days in the spring, the assembly was scheduled for testimonies of wills and adorations. All other meetings had no pre-set dates and were held as needed. It also had jurisdiction over the admission of new families to a curia, the transfer of a family between two curias, as well as the transfer of plebeian individuals to the patrician state (or vice versa), or the restoration of citizenship to an individual. The assembly usually decided such questions under the presidency of a pontiff. Since the assembly was primarily a legislative assembly, it was (in theory) responsible for ratifying laws. However, the rejection of such laws by the assembly did not prevent their enactment. On some occasions the curial assembly reaffirmed the legal authority of a king, and sometimes it ratified the decision to go to war. The silent assembly (comitia calata) was the oldest Roman assembly. It met in the Capitol and was convened by the assemblies of the curias and/or the centuries. The assembly had the function of inaugurating the king of sacred things (rex sacrorum) or any flame or vestal. Occasionally the people were summoned to meetings that dealt with cases such as the detentatio sacrorum, that is, situations where an individual renounced the cult of his people and, through adoption, a very common practice with the purpose of establishing bonds between peoples, adopted the cult of its new people. the people had nominal participation in the assembly. executive judiciaries Circus Maximus (in red) During the reign of Rome, the king was the main executive magistracy. He was the chief executive, high priest, chief lawgiver, chief judge, and commander-in-chief of the army. His powers rested on law and legal precedence, and he could only receive these powers through the political process of a democratic election. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. When war broke out, he had sole competence to organize the troops, select leaders for the army, and conduct the campaign as he saw fit. He controlled all property held by the State, had the exclusive competence to divide the land and the spoils of war, was the main representative of the city in relation to the gods or the leaders of other communities, and could unilaterally enact any new law. According to the historian Sallust, the degree of legal authority (imperium) held by the Roman king was known as the legitimum imperium. This probably means that the only restriction on the king was the mos maiorum. This, for example, suggests (but does not require) that he should consult with the Senate before making decisions. While the king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he usually preferred to have these declarations ratified by the popular assembly. Furthermore, he did not normally decide questions dealing with Roman family law, but rather let the popular assembly decide those questions. While the king had absolute power over criminal and civil trials, he probably only acted on cases at their initial stage (in iure), then referred the case to one of his assistants (a judge; Latin: iudex) for decision. In the most serious criminal cases, the king could refer the case to the people, gathered in a popular assembly, for judgment. Also, the king used to receive consent from the other priests before introducing new deities. Sometimes he presented his decrees to both the popular assembly and the senate for ceremonial ratification, but the rejection of his decrees did not prevent their promulgation. The king chose various officers to help him and unilaterally granted him his powers. When the king left the city, an urban prefect (praefectus urbi) presided over the city in his place. The king also had two quaestors as assistants general, while several other officers, the perdulion duumvirs (duumviri perduellionis), assisted him during cases of treason. In warfare, the king occasionally commanded only infantry, and delegated command of the cavalry to one of his personal bodyguards, the tribune of the celerum (tribunus celerum). According to some theories, from the 6th century BC onwards, with the decline of the monarchical system, kings were replaced by lifelong masters of the people (magistri populi) (dictator) in executive conduct. roman kings The traditional chronicles, which reached the present day through authors such as Livy, Plutarch, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, etc., tell that there was a succession of seven kings. The traditional chronology, narrated by Marcus Terencius Varro, shows that these reigns lasted 243 years, that is, there is an average of 35 years per reign (much longer than any documented dynasty), still reevaluated today, since the work of Barthold Georg Niebuhr. The Gauls, led by Brennus, sacked Rome after the victory at the Battle of Alia in 390/387 BC, so that all historical records of the city were destroyed, including those from earlier phases. Thus, later sources, referring to the earliest period, have to be analyzed with caution, as they were written centuries after the events. The reigns of the first monarchs raise great doubts to historians, due to their great average duration and the fact that some seem to be rounded around 40 years in duration. This curious fact, which stands out even more when compared to current reigns, in which life expectancy is greater, was explained in Roman traditions due to the fact that most kings had been relatives of their predecessors. Nevertheless, it is more likely that only the later kings actually existed, and so far no historical evidence concerning the earlier ones has been discovered. Romulus Romulus transports rich booty to the Temple of Jupiter, Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres, École des Beaux-Arts, Paris Rape of the Sabine Women, oil by Pietro de Cortona (ca 1627–1629), Capitoline Museums, Rome Romulus was not only the first king of Rome, but also its founder, along with his twin Remus. In the year 753 BC, they both began to build the city on the Palatine Hill, when, according to legend, Romulus killed Remus for sacrilegiously crossing the Pomerania. After the foundation of the city (city), Romulus invited criminals, escaped slaves and auxiliaries to help in the new city, thus reaching five of the seven hills of Rome. To get wives for his citizens, Romulus invited the Sabines to a festival, where he kidnapped the Sabine women and took them to Rome. After the ensuing war with the Sabines, Romulus united the Sabines and the Romans under the rule of a diarchy along with the Sabine leader Titus Tatius. Romulus divided the population of Rome into strong men and those unfit to fight. The combatants constituted the first Roman legions; though the rest became commoners of Rome, Romulus selected one hundred of the highest-ranking men as senators. These men were called fathers and their descendants would be the patricians, the Roman nobility. After the union between Romans and Sabines, Romulus added another hundred men to the senate. Under the reign of Romulus, the institution of the augurs was also established as part of the Roman religion, as well as the assembly of the curias. Romulus divided the people of Rome into three tribes: Romans (Ramnes), Sabines (Ticians) and the rest (Lucers). Each tribe elected ten curias (community of men), also providing 100 knights (celer) and 1,000 foot soldiers (milites) each, thus forming the first legion of 300 riders and 3,000 infantry; he could occasionally summon a second legion in case of urgency. These contingents Tribal tribunes were commanded by military tribunes (tribuni militum) and cavalry tribunes (tribuni celerum). After 38 years of reign, Romulus had fought numerous wars, extending Rome's influence throughout Latium and other surrounding areas. He would soon be remembered as the first great conqueror and as one of the most devout men in the history of Rome. After his death at the age of 54, he was deified as the war god Quirinus, honored not only as one of the three main gods of Rome. Numa Pompilius Numa Pompilius and the nymph Egeria, oil on canvas (c. 1631-1633), Condé Museum Numa Pompilius, of Sabine origin, was the successor of Romulus. Reluctant for the position, he was convinced by his father that he would be serving the will of the gods. Remembered for his wisdom, his reign was marked by peace and prosperity. Numa reformed the Roman calendar, adjusting it for the solar and lunar year, also adding the months of January and February to complete the twelve months of the new calendar. He instituted numerous Roman religious rites (eg The Agonia) and appointed new priesthoods: the salians (salii) to worship Mars and a flamine major (flamen maioris) as Quirinius' high priest, the quirinal flamine (flamen quirinalis). He organized the territory surrounding Rome into districts for better administration, and he divided the lands conquered by Romulus among the citizens, organizing the city into guilds and offices. Numa was remembered as the most religious of kings, even above Romulus himself. Under his reign, temples to Vesta and Janus were erected, an altar was consecrated on the Capitol to the god of the border Terminus, and the flamines, vestals and pontiffs of Rome were organized, as well as the College of Pontiffs. Tradition has it that during Numa's rule a shield of Jupiter fell from the sky with the fate of Rome written on it. The king ordered eleven copies made of it, which were revered as sacred by the Romans. As a kind and peace-loving man, Numa sowed ideas of piety and justice in the Roman mind. During his reign, the doors of the Temple of Janus were always closed, showing that he had not waged any war during his tenure. After 43 years of reign, Numa's death took place peacefully and naturally. Túlio Hostílio Tullius Hostilius defeats the army from Veios and Fidenas, oil on wood by Cavalier D'Arpino (ca. 1601), Petit Palais, Paris Túlio Hostílio, of Latin origin, was the successor of Numa Pompilius. Much like Romulus in his warrior character, he was the complete opposite of Numa in his lack of attention to the gods. Tullius fomented several wars against Alba Longa, Fidenas and Veios, which won Rome new territories and greater power. It was during the reign of Tullius that Alba Longa was completely destroyed, the entire population being enslaved and sent to Rome. In this way, Rome imposed itself on its mother city as the hegemonic power of Latium. Despite his belligerent nature, Tullius Hostilius selected a third group of individuals who came to belong to Rome's patrician class, chosen from among all those who had come to Rome seeking asylum and a new life. He also erected a new building to house the senate, the Curia Hostilia. In his reign the king was involved in so many wars that he neglected his attention from the deities, which led, according to legends, to a plague befalling Rome, which affected many Romans, including the king himself. When Tullius asked Jupiter for help, the god responded like a thunderbolt that reduced both the monarch and his residence to ashes. His reign came to an end after 32 years of duration. Anco Márcio Denarius of Caio Censorino issued in 88 BC. with effigy of Numa Pompílio and Anco Márcio With the death of Tulio Hostílio, the Romans elected the Sabine Anco Márcio, a peaceful and religious personage. He was the grandson of Numa Pompilius and, like his grandfather, only extended the limits of Rome, fighting in defense of Roman territories when necessary. During his reign he fortified Mount Janiculum, on the west bank of the Tiber River, to ensure greater protection for the city on this flank, also building Rome's first bridge, the Ponte Sublicia, as well as the first Roman prison, the Mamertine Prison. Other works of the king were the construction of the Roman port of Ostia on the Tyrrhenian coast, as well as the first salting factories, taking advantage of the traditional river route of the salt trade (via Salaria) that supplied the Sabine farmers. The size of the city of Rome was increased due to the diplomacy exercised by Anco, allowing the peaceful union of several smaller villages through alliances. Thanks to this method, he gained control of the Latins, resettled on the Aventine, thus consolidating Rome's plebeian class. However, conflicts between Romans and Latins during his reign are still evident. After 24 years of reign, he died possibly a natural death, like his grandfather, being remembered as one of the great pontiffs of Rome. He was the last of the Latin Sabine kings of Rome. Tarquinius Priscus Túlia directs over her father's corpse, oil on canvas by Jean Bardin (c. 1735), State Museum of Mainz Tarquinius Priscus was the fifth king of Rome, and the first of Etruscan origin, presumably of Corinthian descent. After emigrating to Rome, he obtained the favor of Anco, who adopted him as his son. Upon ascending the throne, he fought in several victorious wars against the Sabines and Etruscans, thus doubling the size of Rome and obtaining great treasures for the city. One of his first reforms was to add one hundred new members to the senate, coming from the conquered Etruscan tribes, so the number of senators rose to a total of three hundred. He also enlarged the army, doubling the force to 6,000 infantry and 600 riders. In addition, he is credited with creating the Roman Games. Tarquinius Priscus used the great booty obtained in his military campaigns to build great monuments in Rome, of which the great sewage system in the city, the Cloaca Máxima (whose purpose was to drain the waters of small streams that tended to stagnate in the valleys). situated between the hills of Rome towards the river Tiber), the Roman Forum and the Circus Maximus, a great stadium that housed horse races and that had a temple-fortress on the Capitoline Hill, consecrated to Jupiter.[83] Tarquinius was assassinated after 38 years of reign by the sons of his predecessor, Ancus Marcius. His reign is remembered for introducing Roman military symbols and civil positions, as well as for celebrating the first Roman triumph. Serbian Tulio Digitally retouched version of an Etruscan fresco located in the Tumba François, Vulcos. In it are represented the Etruscan noble Célio Vibena, Mastarna and Sérvio Túlio. see original here Servius Tullius, son-in-law of Tarquinius Priscus, assumed the throne and, like his predecessor, fought several victorious wars against the Etruscans. The acquired booty was used to finance the first walls that surrounded the seven Roman hills on the Pomerion, the so-called Servian walls, as well as a temple dedicated to Diana on the Aventine hill. In the military sphere, Servius Tullius introduced new military tactics, in the Etruscan and Greek molds, and endeavored to make the Roman army more disciplined and basically composed of heavy infantry, like the Greek hoplite phalanxes. His army, composed of 6,000 infantrymen and 600 riders, was made up of men with a minimum amount of goods called adsidu (adsidui), in order to differentiate them from the proletarians (proletarii), the poor of society who made up the infra class (" lower class") and who were not entitled to join the army. In the social sphere he developed a new constitution for the Romans, with greater attention to the citizen classes. He instituted the first census in history, dividing the population of Rome into five census classes, also creating the Assembly of Centuries. He also used the census to divide the city into four urban "tribes" (tribus urbane), based on their spatial location within the city, and the remainder of Roman territory into 16 rural tribes (tribus rusticae) establishing the tribal assembly (comitia tributa). . Servius' reforms represented a major change in Roman life: the right to vote was established on the basis of economic wealth, whereby a large part of political power remained reserved for Roman elites. However, in the time of Serbia, the most disadvantaged classes were gradually favored, in order to obtain greater support from the plebeians, which is why their legislation can be defined as unsatisfactory for the patricial class. The great 44-year reign of Servius Tullius ended with his assassination in a conspiracy hatched by his own daughter Tulia and her husband Tarquinius, his successor on the throne. The Death of Lucrécia, oil on canvas, Eduardo Rosales (ca. 1871), Prado Museum Lictors Bring the Sons of Brutus, Jacques-Louis David (1784) Tarquinius the Superb The seventh and last king of Rome was Tarquinius the Superb. Son of Priscus and son-in-law of Servius, Tarquinius was also of Etruscan origin. He used violence, murder and terror to maintain control over Rome as no previous king had, even repealing many of the constitutional reforms that his predecessors had established. His best work for Rome was the completion of the temple of Jupiter, begun by his father Priscus; he called upon the Etruscan sculptor Vulca de Veios to produce the temple's statue of Jupiter. Tarquinius abolished and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars on the Tarpeian rock, thus infuriating the Roman people. The turning point of his tyrannical reign came when he allowed the rape of Lucretia, a Roman patrician, by his son Sextus Tarquinius. A relative of Lucrezia and nephew of King Lucius Junius Brutus (ancestor of Marcus Junius Brutus), convened the senate that decided to expel Tarquinius in the year 509 BC. Tarquinius may then have received help from Lars Porsena who nevertheless occupied Rome for his own benefit. Tarquinius then fled to the city of Tusculum and later to Cumae, where he died in 495 BC. This expulsion supposedly ended Etruscan influence in both Rome and Latium and led to the establishment of a republican constitution. After Tarquinius' expulsion, the senate decided to abolish the monarchy, converting Rome into a republic in 509 BC. Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Colatino, nephew of Tarquinius and widower of Lucrezia, became the first consuls[p] of the new government of Rome. That same year, during the embassy of members of the royal family in Rome, a ploy known as the Tarquinian Conspiracy was devised by patricians and members of the senate who were supporters of the fallen monarchy; among the participants in the coup were the sons of Bruto, Tito Júnio Bruto and Tibério Júnio Bruto. The stratagem, however, proved to be flawed, and the conspirators were sentenced to death.

Religion Like other Roman institutions, the religious practices of Ancient Rome, according to tradition, were established during the Kingdom of Rome.

According to Livy, Numa Pompilius founded the Roman religion after he dedicated an altar to Jupiter Elicius on the Aventine hill and consulted the gods through an augury. He divided the system of Roman religious rites, which included the form and timing of sacrifices, the supervision of religious funds, authority over all public and private religious institutions, and instruction of the populace in celestial and funerary rites. Numa also established the ceremonies (caerimoniae), originally the secret ritual instructions, which are described as statae et sollemnes ("established and solemn") and which were interpreted and supervised by the College of Pontiffs, flamines, the king of sacred things, and the vestals. . priesthoods Augur in Etruscan representation of the Tomb of the Augurs, Necropolis of Monterozzi The College of Pontiffs, the most important priesthood of Ancient Rome, as well as the office of pontifex maximus, were established in the reign of Numa Pompilius. The pontiffs had the supreme (judicial and practical) superintendence of all matters, private or public, and of religion, in addition to being the guardians of the books that contained the ritual ordinances of the Romans. Details about their attributions and functions were contained in the so-called pontifical books (libri pontificalis or libri pontificii), the foundational texts of Roman religion, which have survived in fragmentary transcripts and commentaries, the first writings of which are credited to Numa Pompilius, to whom it is attributed the codification of the texts and fundamental principles of the civil and religious law (ius divinum and ius civile) of Rome. These books were sanctioned during the reign of Anco Márcio. The flamines, Roman priests dedicated to the service of particular gods, were among the most important priesthoods of Ancient Rome. During the monarchy, the three that made up the group called the major flame were established, those who were chosen from among the patricians and dedicated to the gods Jupiter (dial flame), Mars (martial flame), and Quirinus (quirinal flame). Later, another 15 flamines were established, the lesser flamines, who were chosen from among the commoners to dedicate themselves to minor gods such as Carmenta, Ceres, Flora, Pomona and Vulcan. According to Plutarch, Romulus established in his reign the priesthood of the first two, however most scholars believe that these, as well as the quirinal flame, were created by Numa. The flamines, whose offices were for life, were inaugurated by the silent assembly and were subject to the authority of the maximum pontiff. The king of sacred things, a position characteristic of the Etruscan religion, as well as of some Latin cities (Tusculus, Lavinius and Velitras), had a notorious importance in the Roman religion. In Rome the priesthood was deliberately depoliticized so that the king of sacred things was not elected but chosen by the pontiff from among his subordinate patricians, and his inauguration was witnessed by the silent assembly. With the overthrow in 509 BC. of the kings of Rome, the king of sacred things assumed some of the sacral obligations formerly exercised by them. Etruscan pottery found near Regia, in the Roman Forum, containing an inscription of a rex (ca. 6th-5th centuries BC). It is still a mystery whether the engraved word rex is mentioning one of the kings of Rome, or else a king of holy things. Bust of Roman Emperor Lucius Verus (r. 161–169) as an arval the Louvre Museum The Vestals, chaste priestesses of the goddess Vesta, were created, as a priesthood, during the reign of Numa Pompilius. However, according to Tito Livio, the origins of the Vestals come from Alba Long. Numa, according to Plutarch, founded the Temple of Vesta, appointed the first four priestesses (two of the Ticians and two of the Rhamnes) and appointed a pontiff maximum to assist them. Tarquinius Priscus (according to Plutarch) or Servius Tullius (according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus) added two other vestals to the temple, these coming from the Lucers. Their main functions were to watch, in turns, the eternal fire that burned on the altar of the goddess Vesta and the sacred relics of Rome, the fatale pignus imperii, to present offerings to the goddess within established deadlines, to participate in the consecration of temples, priestly banquets and festivals. like that of Bona Dea and to sprinkle and purify the shrine every morning with water, which, according to Numa, must have come from the Egerian spring (frequented by the nymph Egeria). It was later considered that any water that came from a spring or stream was acceptable. In official sacrificial rituals, they prepared and sprinkled a mixture known as mola salsa (wheat flour and/or salted barley) on the forehead and between the horns of sacrificial victims, as well as on the altar and sacred fire. This practice, very popular during Roman sacrifices, was attributed to Numa Pompilius. The augurs had a notorious participation in the Roman religion, since they were the ones who interpreted the divine wills about proposed actions through the interpretation of auspices and/or auguries. During the monarchic period, one of the rituals of the augurs, the inauguration (inauguratio), which consisted of a rite in which the gods approved the appointment and/or possession of someone by means of signs, was the privilege of the king and the chief priests. In the republic the king of sacred things, the flamines major, the augurs and the pontiffs acquired the right to be approved in the ritual. The Salians, commonly known as the Salians Palatines (salii palatini), were priests instituted by Numa and chosen from among the patricians of Rome to dedicate themselves to Mars Gradivo in his temple on the Palatine. Túlio Hostílio, in fulfillment of a vow made during the second war with Fidenas and Veios, established another group of Salians, the Salians Colinos (salii collini), who dedicated themselves to Quirino. The palatine salians had as one of their obligations the care of the 12 bronze ancilli (ancilia) of Mars that were in the Palatine. In addition, they celebrated, on March 1st, the festival of Mars in which they roamed the city carrying them, singing and dancing; at the end of the route there was a celebration of the god in the Temple of Mars on the Palatine. The fetials (fetiales), established in Rome by Anco Marcio, were a priesthood dedicated to the god Jupiter. Their main functions consisted of formally declaring peace and war, confirming treaties and, in specific cases, carrying out missions as diplomats or ambassadors. Others, the arval brothers (fratres arvales), were priests who dedicated themselves to making public offerings to the country gods of fertility. It is speculated that they were established during the reign of Romulus and that they presumably had affinities with the priests known as the Titian sodais (titii sodales) who, according to tradition, were established by Titus Tatius.[128] cults and rituals Sculptures depicting the Capitoline triad, Prenestino Archaeological Museum, in Palestrina Model depicting the structure of the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter erected by Tarquinius the Superb In Ancient Rome the cults (sacer; singular sacra) were the traditional cults, public (publica) or private (privata), both supervised by the College of Pontiffs. The creation of public worship (sacra publica) is attributed to Numa Pompilius, although many consider it a previous origin, possibly before the foundation of Rome. In this way, Numa can be seen as the reformer and reorganizer of the cult according to his own views and upbringing. Public services were held and funded by the state, in accordance with the provisions left by Numa, and were attended by all senators and magistrates. Public services (sacer publica) were performed on behalf of the entire Roman people or its main subdivisions, the tribes and curias. They included "rites in the name of the Roman people" (sacra por populo), that is, all public holidays (feriae publicae) of the Roman calendar and the other feasts that were considered to be of public interest, including those relating to the hills of Rome, the paid, to the curias and to the sanctuaries (sacelos). Public services were intended for people, a family, or an individual. Individuals had services on dates peculiar to them, such as birthdays, the "day of consecration" (dies lustricus), funerals and atonements. Families had their worship at home or at the tomb of their ancestors. These were considered necessary and imperishable, and the desire to perpetuate family worship was one of the reasons for adoption into adulthood. In the midst of the public cults there were the ge cults. ntilicios (sacer gentilicia), private private rites of a people. These rites were related to the belief in the common ancestry of the members of a people, which is the basis of the practices of the cult of the dead. Due to contact with the Etruscans, the Romans assimilated several of these gods who began to be worshiped by them in the Roman way. During the process of conquest that took place after the republic, these gods tended to acquire characteristics of deities worshiped in other regions, especially Greece. Rome offered no native creation myth, and Roman mythography explains little of the character of its deities, their relationships, or their aspirations with the human world, but it recognized that Roman theology of immortal gods (di immortales) who ruled over all kingdoms heavens and earth. There were gods of the heavens, gods of the underworld, and a myriad of lesser deities. Among all the gods worshiped, those that stood out were the so-called triads: the archaic triad (Jupiter, Mars and Quirino, of Indo-European origin) and the Capitoline triad (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, of Etruscan origin). According to some scholars, Vulcan, god of forges and fire, has its name originated from Latin words linked to lightning (fulgur, fulgure, fulmen), which in turn are related to flames. On the other hand, recent studies suggest that the word Vulcan is possibly related to the Cretan god Velcano, linked to nature and the underworld, which in turn is related to the Etruscan god Velchans. He was one of the oldest Roman gods and to him was dedicated the oldest sanctuary in Rome, the Vulcanal at the foot of the Capitol in the Roman Forum, which had been founded by Titus Tatius in the 8th century BC. and was the meeting point of the Etruscan haruspices. A fragment of Greek pottery found on the Vulcanal dated to the 6th century BC. it has a representation of the god Hephaestus, which can be seen as indicative of the union of both gods. Ruins of the Temple of Vesta, Roman Forum Ruins of the Temple of Saturn, Roman Forum Vesta, protective goddess of the home, takes her name, according to Georges Dumézil, from an Indo-European root; according to scholars, her origins are associated with the Vedic god Agni. Linked to the sacred fire of fecundity, she was involved in a version of the birth of Romulus, Servius Túlio and Cêculo, founder of Palestrina. In addition to Vesta, the Romans worshiped other entities that acted as guardians of the home, as well as, by extension, of the Romans: the lars, penates, genii and junos. Homes were spirits that acted either as good entities (protectors of homes, families, sailors and soldiers, fields, roads and Rome itself) or bad. The Penates, originally from Troy (they were brought by Aeneas), were a pair of protective gods of the pantry of Roman residences. The jinn, according to Roman tradition, were entities that acted as protectors of all men (women were protected by the Junos, servants of the goddess Juno), so that everyone had their own, even Rome; they appeared as winged figures or as men with a cornucopia. Diana, goddess associated with hunting, the moon and childbirth, has an Indo-European root in her name, the same from which the name of the Vedic god Diaus and the Latin words deus and dies (day, daylight) derive; in tablets of Pylos the theonym διϝια is, according to scholars, a reference to Diana. Her cult presumably began in Aricia with open-air cults among the Latins, having spread to the outskirts of Rome where, in the 6th century BC, Servius Tullius erected a temple dedicated to her on Mount Aventine. The cult of the Roman gods that symbolized the Sole a Lua (Luna), according to tradition, was established in Rome by Titus Tatius, based on Sabine deities. Sol has been identified as the grandfather of the Latin king. Two temples were dedicated to Luna, one on the Aventine Hill below the Temple of Diana, and the other on the Palatine. In the Roman pantheon there were an infinity of divinities linked with the country cults. Ceres, goddess of pastoral, agricultural and human fertility, hypothetically has an Indo-European origin, as her name root suggests. Archaic cults are evidenced among many of the Romans' neighbors, such as Latins, Oscans, Samnites and a Faliscan inscription dated to 600 BC. emphasizes prayers to the goddess. Over time, on Roman soil, the name Ceres became synonymous with grain and, by extension, bread. Saturn, god linked to the beginnings of agriculture and the cultivation of vines, was worshiped as one of the founding Roman deities; a temple begun during the reign of Tarquinius the Superb and completed in 497 BC, located on the Capitol, was dedicated to him. Ops, wife of Saturn, was the goddess linked to harvest, wealth, abundance and prosperity; it was introduced into Roman cults by Titus Tatius from a Sabine deity; a temple was dedicated to her on the Capitol, close to the one dedicated to her husband. Faun, patron of agriculture and protector of shepherds, is sometimes identified, namely in Virgil's work, as one of the ancient kings of Lazio, having been the son of Pico, son of Saturn. He was, like Numa, a disseminator of cults in Latium and, according to tradition, in his reign the heroes Evander and Hercules arrived in Latium. Conso, protector god of grain and silos, of possible Etruscan or Sabine origin, was one of the oldest Roman agrarian deities. Represented as a seed, an altar near the Circus Maximus was dedicated to him. Mater Matuta, originally a Sabine goddess, was incorporated into the Roman pantheon and a temple erected by Servius Tullius was dedicated to her near the place where the Forum Boarium would later be founded. Image of the temple of Janus in a sesterce of the reign of Nero (r. 54–68) During the monarchy, before the spread of the cult of some gods like Pluto and Proserpine, the Romans created the first concepts of their underworld through Indo-European deities. Orc, god of the dead and of oaths, later associated with another Roman god, Dis Pater, was one of the first deities of the underworld; His cult was widespread in rural areas. Another important underworld deity was Libitina, goddess of funerals and burials. A grove located on Mount Esquilino was dedicated to her, which, like other locations associated with underworld entities, was considered "unhealthy and inauspicious". Servius Tullius, in his reign, established a taxation known as "death tax" which consisted of paying a coin to the temple of Libitina when a person died. According to classical authors, Romulus and Titus Tatius, or Numa Pompilius, established the cult of Terminus, god of frontier landmarks, from a Sabine deity, since the word Terminus (Latin: Terminus meant border stone in Latin; presumably this deity originated from a Proto-Indo-European god. It is speculated that a stone dedicated to the god was situated on the Capitol Hill before Tarquinius Priscus or Tarquinius the Superb erected a temple on the site; the stone was taken to the temple and believed to be its immobility was a good omen for the permanence of the city's borders. Fortuna, Roman goddess of luck and fortune, was established by Anco Márcio] or Servius Tullius. The first temple dedicated to her was erected during the reign of Servius Tullius on the banks of the River Tiber (at Trastevere). Sanchus, originally an Umbrian deity, introduced to the Roman pantheon by Titus Tatius, was the god of truth, honesty and oaths. During the reign of Tarquinius, the Superb a temple was erected in her honor. Numa Pompilius associated Janus, god of beginnings and transitions, with the first month of the calendar, January. Due to his characteristics as a deity, he was associated with various elements such as light, the moon, the sun, time, movement, the year, doors, and bridges. Numa erected the Janus Gemino (Ianus Geminus), a temple consecrated to the god that was ritually opened in times of war and closed when Roman forces rested, as well as a statue, both located on Argileto (an ancient Roman road). It is speculated that the epithet Gemini (Geminus) was coined during Numa's reign. festivals Festival of Pales, or The Summer, oil on canvas, Joseph-Benoît Suvée (ca. 1783), Museum of Fine Arts, Rouen Hail, Caesar! Io, Saturnalia!, oil on panel, Lawrence Alma-Tadema (ca. 1880), Akron Museum of Art Roman calendars show around 40 annual religious festivals. Some lasted several days, others a single day or less: in the calendars there were sacred days (dies fasti), in smaller numbers, and non-sacred days (dies nefasti). Comparison of surviving Roman religious calendars suggests that official festivals were organized according to large seasonal groups that allowed for different local traditions. Some festivals may have only required the presence and rites of their priests and acolytes, or specific groups. One of the oldest rituals known to the Romans was the Latin Holidays (Feriae Latinae) celebrated since before the foundation of Rome, in a pre-urban pastoral context, in order to reaffirm the alliance between the members of the Albian peoples (Latin: populi albenses; 10th century - 8th century BC) and the Latin league (7th-338th century BC). Each Latin city sent a representative with offerings such as sheep, cheese, or other pastoral products. The Roman leader presiding over the festival offered a libation of milk and performed a sacrifice of a sheep, the sacrifice meat being consumed as part of a communal meal. Amidst the festivities, figurines called oscillates were hung from the trees. Lupercalia, another Roman pastoral festival, was presumably established before the city's founding. Held between February 13-15, it aimed to prevent evil spirits and purify the city, providing health and fertility. In antiquity it was believed that the name Lupercalia demonstrated some connection with the ancient Greek festival of Lycaia (Greek: λύκος; Romaniz.: lukos; Latin: lupus) and the worship of the god Pan, assumed to be an equivalent of the Greek god Faunus. , instituted by Evandro; during the republic the festival was associated with the capitoline wolf, an institution attributed to Rômulo and Remo. The rites were performed by the Lupercos (Quintilians [Quinctiliani] and Fabians [Fabiani]), a corporation of priests of Faun, who dressed only in goatskin. The Parilia, celebrated annually on April 21, aimed at the purification of both shepherds and sheep. This festival was celebrated in recognition of the Roman deity Pales (patron of shepherds and sheep) and, according to Ovid, predates the founding of Rome; during the late republic it was associated with the city's anniversary. Cerealia was one of the great festivals dedicated to the goddess Ceres. It was held for seven days from mid to late April, however dates are uncertain. Its archaic nature is evidence of its relationship to a nocturnal ritual described by Ovid, in which torches were tied to the tails of live foxes. The purpose and origin of this ritual is unknown, but it may have been intended to cleanse crops and protect them from disease and pests, or to bring warmth and vitality to their growth. Lemuria was celebrated on the 9th, 11th and 13th of May. During this festival, the Romans performed rites to exorcise ghosts (lemures or larvae) from their homes. Its origin comes from another festival, the Remuria, instituted by Romulus to appease the spirit of Remus. Equiria, established by Romulus, was dedicated to the god Mars and took place on February 27, according to the Roman calendar. In this festival, the divinity was celebrated through horse races, a common practice in other festivities such as Consualia. According to Livy, Consuália was created by Romulus in honor of the god Conso in order to attract new residents to Rome. Saturnalia, established by Romulus or Numa Pompilius, was celebrated in honor of the god Saturn, originally on December 17. It was celebrated with a sacrifice in the temple of Saturn and a public feast, followed by private offerings, ongoing feasts, and a carnival atmosphere where masters served slaves. Roman men in pretense togas participating in a religious ceremony, probably the Compitalia. Fresco found on the outskirts of Pompeii The Fornocalia, instituted by Numa Pompilius, was dedicated to the goddess Fornax so that the grains were properly cooked. Robigalia, another festival instituted by Numa, was held on April 25 and consisted of the sacrifice of a dog to protect grain crops from disease. Due to the presence of the king and the quirinal flamen at the festivities, it is speculated to be of Sabine origin. Fordicide, held on April 15, was a festival of fertility for both crops and animals. Instituted by Numa, it involved the sacrifice of a pregnant cow to Thelo, goddess of the earth. The Compitália, held once a year in honor of the compital homes, was, according to some writers, established by Tarquinius Priscus, in consequence of having witnessed the miracle of the birth of Servius Tullius, who was supposedly the son of a family home, a deity guardian of the family; Dionysius of Halicarnassus claims that the festival was established by Servius Tullius himself. Celebrated days after the Saturnalia, the Compitália consisted of offering honey cakes to homes. Each family placed in front of their house a statue of the goddess Mania, as well as male and female woolen dolls in reverence for the homes and the goddess; slaves offered balls of wool. Roman law The famous Lapis Niger, from the Roman Forum, is among the oldest Roman objects (7th century BC), National Roman Museum During the Roman monarchy, according to some authors, the set of laws that prevailed in Rome were the "laws of the king" (leges regiae). Its origins date back to the institution of both the senate and the assembly of the curias by Romulus. Its function, more than just an instrument of the power of kings, was to create laws that responded to the need of a society made up of different tribes, especially in matters where mores (customs) were not enough. They granted kings a way of settling religious and military matters, either directly or through some auxiliary such as the master of the people (magister populi) of the Tarquinian period. Thus, while on the one hand the king's laws created new laws different from customs, on the other hand they transformed some of them into laws. The king's laws were established based on the external influence suffered by the Romans over the centuries. Initially there is a clear Greek influence, since since the 8th century BC. there are indications of commercial relations s and/or politics between Romans and Greeks. Furthermore, according to classical authors, Romulus studied in Gabios, a center under Greek influence. Another influence is the Sabine, which is reflected in the use of ox skin as a support for writing, as well as in the content of some of the laws. And finally, the Etruscan influence becomes evident from the government of the Etruscan kings having been of a political, economic and judicial nature. An example of this influence would be the posture of the kings in relation to the people who lost much of their functions during their reigns. According to fragments of Sextus Pomponius and other classical authors, the king's laws were deliberated by both the senate and the curia assembly (comitia curiata) and approved by the king of sacred things and the pontiff maxim. However, there are those who argue that, due to the power of the kings, they were the ones who decided, without the veto of the curias, having only the support of the College of Pontiffs, in addition to the deliberation of the senate. It is speculated that the curias had only the function of publicly participating in the enactment of laws. On certain occasions the kings held rallies similar to those of the republican period. This is attested by the words Q(when), R(ex), C(omitiavit), F(as) present in the first Roman calendar. The King's Laws were, in short, applied to sanction instances of a religious nature, however these were not the only sanctions in use. Others include the confiscation of property and the death penalty, which was not administered in the name of any sacred principle, but in the retribution of a crime with an equal punishment.

END OF THE KINGDOM AND BEGINNING OF THE REPUBLIC

Fragments of Etruscan decorative terracotta plaques from Regia, in the Roman Forum (ca. 6th century BC) The period between the founding of Rome and the expulsion of its last king lasted two and a half centuries. Having started, like other cities in Latium, as a simple refuge for shepherds, the settlement on the Palatine expanded until it dominated the entire circle of the seven hills. Slowly, in parallel with this internal growth, a succession of conquests brought the frontiers to both banks of the Tiber, to the Tyrrhenian Sea, to a long stretch of Latium, from Ostia to Circeios, and from the Sabine frontier and the Volsci highlands. . Due to liberal politics, there was a constant flow of new settlers, who brought strength and knowledge to the community. Over time, the presence of this new population, outside the privileged circle of the founders, brought problems that were overcome and contributed to the formation of legislators and statesmen among the ruling classes. Thus, after more than two centuries of existence, in 509 BC, the royal period ended and the Roman Republic began without any violent rupture of traditions. One of the main factors supporting the gradual transition is the large Etruscan contingent that inhabited Rome at the end of the kingdom. One of the peoples that most influenced Rome in this period, they imported to the city various elements such as fasces (bundle of sticks and axes that symbolized the imperium of kings), games, triumphs, certain cultic and ceremonial practices, tunics, the gods and the arts (architecture, pottery from Búcaro, decorative arts). In 509 BC, when the senate removed Tarquinius from the throne and elected two magistrates, initially called praetors and later consuls, in his place, there was no massive expulsion of the Etruscans; this characteristic of archaic Rome of absorbing immigrants is also attested in many Etruscan cities where there are Greek, Latin and Italic contingents. Be that as it may, with the end of the power of the monarchs, the consuls restored the three hundred members of the senate that had been reduced under Tarquinius and began their term under the supervision of the senators who during the republic acquired full powers of decision in the affairs of the state and, even the advent of the empire, would be the active force in the politics of Ancient Rome. The later Roman kings, unlike their predecessors, based their position on popular support and challenged the power and privileges of the aristocrats. To this end, like the Greek tyrants, they pursued an ambitious foreign policy, fostered the arts and undertook great architectural projects. Furthermore, they tried to legitimize their position by giving themselves a special and personal favor from the gods (Servio Tullius claimed kinship with Fortuna) and adopted a populist government; authors such as Tim Cornell claim that the reforms of Sérvio Túlio fall within this scope. The populist and aristocratic character of the regime of the last kings is confirmed by the later Roman attitude towards monarchical authority. In the Republic, the mere idea of a king provoked deep revulsion, since it was at odds with the aristocratic ideology of the ruling class. Thus, among the members of the rural oligarchy, there was a horror that one of them would try to place himself above his equals in defending the needs of the clans. low asses and therefore gain their support; Spurius Melius, Marcus Manlio Capitoline and the Gracco brothers were executed on the charge of monarchism (regnum).

THE STORY OF ROME

The history of Rome dates back to 753 BC, with the founding of a small village on the Italian peninsula. Although the foundation took place in the 8th century BC, the oldest written record is that established by the historian Marcus Terentius Varro (116 BC - 27 BC) during the reign of Augustus, about 500 years after the fact. Over time, Rome became the center of a vast civilization that dominated the Mediterranean region for centuries, and that would be overthrown by some Germanic tribes, ushering in the historiographical era of the Middle Ages. It became the seat of the Catholic Church and, under the pressure of political circumstances, would be forced to give up part of itself, within it, to form an independent state, Vatican City. It continued, however, to play an important role in global politics, as it did in the history and culture of European peoples for millennia. Ancient Rome Ancient Rome was a civilization that developed from the city-state of Rome, founded on the Italian peninsula during the 8th century BC. During its twelve centuries of existence, Roman civilization transitioned from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to become a vast empire that dominated Western Europe and around the entire Mediterranean Sea through conquest and cultural assimilation. However, a list of socio-political factors would worsen its decline, and the empire would be divided in two. The western half, which included Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, completely collapsed in the 5th century and gave rise to several independent kingdoms; the eastern half, ruled from Constantinople, came to be referred to as the Byzantine Empire from 476, the traditional date of the fall of Rome and used by historiography to mark the beginning of the Middle Ages. Origin The etymology of the city's name is uncertain, and there are several theories that reach us since antiquity. The less likely one indicates that it would derive from the Greek word Ρώμη (Róme), which means "bravery", "courage". The most likely connection with the root *rum-, "breasts", with possible reference to a wolf (in Latin, lupa) that would have adopted the twins Romulus and Remus, who are thought to be descendants of the peoples of Lavinius. Romulus would kill his brother and found Rome. In recent decades, advances in the Etruscan language and in archeology in Italy have reduced the probabilities of these theories, introducing new possible hypotheses. It is now known that Etruscan was spoken from the region that would later become the Roman province of Racia, in the Alps, to Etruria, including Latium and the entire region to the south, as far as Capua. The Italian tribes entered Latium from a mountainous region in the center of the Italian peninsula from the eastern coast. Despite the circumstances of Rome's founding, its original population was certainly a combination of Etruscan civilization and Italic peoples, with a probable predominance of Etruscans. Gradually, the Italic infiltration would increase, to the point of predominating over the Etruscans; i.e., the Etruscan populations would be assimilated by the Italians, inside and outside Rome. The Etruscans had the word Rumach, "from Rome", from which "Ruma" can be extracted. Further in the etymology, as in most Etruscan words, it remains unknown. That it might even mean "theta" is pure speculation. Later mythological associations cast doubt on this meaning; after all, none of the original settlers were raised by wolves, and it is unlikely that the founders had any knowledge of this myth about themselves. The name, Tiberius, may well contain the name of the Tiber (Italian: Tevere). The name is now believed to come from an Etruscan name, Thefarie, in which case the Tiber would derive from *Thefar. first italic peoples Map of ancient italic languages Rome grew with the settlement of peoples on the Palatine Hill to other hills eight miles from the Tyrrhenian Sea, on the south bank of the River Tiber. Another of these hills, the Quirinal, was probably an entrepôt for another Italic people, the Sabines. In this zone, the Tiber outlines a curve in the form of "Z" containing an island that allows its crossing. Thus, Rome was at the crossroads between the river valley and traders who traveled from north to south along the western side of the peninsula. The traditional date of foundation (April 21, 753 BC) was agreed much later, at the end of the Republic by Publius Terêncio Varrão,[2] assigning a duration of 35 years to each of the seven generations corresponding to the seven mythological ones. kings. However, archaeological pieces have been discovered that indicate that the area of Rome may have been inhabited as early as 1400 BC. These archaeological discoveries also confirmed that in the 8th century BC, in the area of the future Rome, there were two fortified settlements, the Rumi, on the Palatine Hill, and the Titientes, on the Quirinal, and, further north, the Luceres, who lived in the woods. These were just three of the numerous Italic communities that existed in the first millennium BC. in the region of Lazio, a plain on the Italian peninsula. However, the origins of these peoples are unknown, although it is accepted that they may have descended from the Indo-Europeans who migrated from the North of the Alps in the second half of the second millennium BC, or from a possible mixture of these peoples with other Mediterranean peoples, perhaps from the North. from Africa. In the 8th century BC, the Italics — Latins (in the west), Sabines (in the upper Tiber valley), Umbrians (in the northeast), Samnites (in the south), Oscans and others — shared the peninsula with other major ethnic groups: the Etruscans. from the north and the Greeks from the south. The Etruscans were established north of Rome, in Etruria (an area corresponding to present-day northern Lazio and Tuscany). They would have been a major influence on Roman culture, as clearly demonstrated by the Etruscan origin of the seven mythological kings. Between 750 BC and 550 BC, the Greeks would have founded several colonies in the south of the peninsula (which the Romans would later call Magna Graecia), such as Cumae, Neapolis and Tarentum, as well as in the eastern two-thirds of Sicily. Etruscan domain The Servian Wall is named after the Serbian King Tullius and is the true first walls of Rome. Temple of Jupiter 526 BC-509 BC Etruscan tomb After 650 BC, the Etruscans became dominant in the Italian peninsula, expanding into the north-central part of the region. Some modern historians consider that this movement was associated with the desire to dominate Rome and perhaps the entire region of Lazio, although the matter is controversial. Roman tradition only informs us that the city was ruled by seven kings from 753 BC. to 509 BC, starting with the mythical Romulus who, together with his brother, Remus, would have founded Rome. About the last three kings, especially Tarquinius Priscus and Tarquinius the Superb, he also informs us that they were of Etruscan origin - according to ancient literary sources, Priscus was the son of a Greek refugee and an Etruscan mother - and whose names refer to Tarquinia. The historiographical value of the list of kings is, however, dubious, although the last kings appear to have been historical figures. It is also believed—although disputed in controversy—that Rome would have been under Etruscan influence for nearly a century during this period. It is known, however, that in these years a bridge called Ponte Sublício was built, which would replace a shoal of the Tiber River used for its crossing, and the Cloaca Máxima, the Roman sewage system, engineering works with a typical layout. of Etruscan civilization. From a technical and cultural point of view, the Etruscans are considered to have the second greatest impact on Roman development, second only to the Greeks. Continuing the expansion, to the south, the Etruscans established direct contact with the Greeks. After the initial success in the conflicts with the colonizing Greeks, Etruria would go into decline. Taking advantage of the situation, around 500 BC, a rebellion took place in Rome that would give it independence from the Etruscans. The monarchy was also abolished in favor of a republican system based on a senate, composed of the city's nobles, some popular representatives, who would guarantee political participation to the citizens of Rome, and annually elected magistrates. However, the Etruscan legacy proved enduring: the Romans learned to build temples, and the former are thought to have been responsible for introducing the worship of a divine triad—Juno, Minerva, and Jupiter—possibly corresponding to the Etruscan gods Uni. , Menrva and Tinia. In short, the Etruscans transformed Rome, a pastoral community, into a true city, imprinting on it some cultural aspects of Greek culture, which they would have adopted, such as the western version of the Greek alphabet. Roman Republic Roman Forum Roman expansion on the Italian peninsula At the turn of the 5th century BC, Rome joined the Latin cities as a defensive measure against Sabine incursions. Winning the Battle of Lake Regilo in 493 BC, Rome re-established supremacy over the Latin regions it had lost with the fall of the monarchy. After a series of struggles, supremacy was consolidated in 393 BC, with the subjugation of the Volsci (volsci) and the Equos (aequi). In the previous year, they would have already solved the threat of neighboring Veios, conquering them. Etruscan power was now confined exclusively to its own region, and Rome had become the dominant city in Latium. However, in 387 BC, Rome would be sacked by the Gauls led by Brenus, who had already succeeded in invading Etruria. This threat would be quickly resolved by the consul Marco Fúrio Camilo, who defeated Breno in Túsculo shortly afterwards. To ensure the ance of its territory, Rome set about rebuilding the buildings and became the invader itself, by conquering Etruria and some territories from the Gauls further north. In 345 BC, Rome turned south, fighting other Latins, in an attempt to secure its territory against further invasions. In this quadrant, their main enemy were the feared Samnites who had already defeated the legions in 321 BC. Despite these and other temporal setbacks, the Romans continued their casual expansion in a balanced way. In 290 BC, Rome already controlled more than half of the Italian peninsula and, during that century, the Romans also took possession of the poleis of Magna Graecia further south. Plan of Rome in the times of the Roman Republic According to legend, Rome became a Republic in 509 BC, when a group of aristocrats expelled Tarquinius the Superb. However, it took several centuries for Rome to assume the monumental form in which it is popularly conceived. During the Punic Wars between Rome and the great Mediterranean empire of Carthage, Rome's status increased even more, as it increasingly assumed the role of a capital of an overseas empire for the first time. Beginning in the 2nd century BC, Rome experienced a significant population explosion, with ancestral farmers exchanging their land for the big city, with the advent of farms operated by slaves obtained during the conquests, the latifundia. In 146 BC, the Romans razed the cities of Carthage and Corinth, annexing North Africa and Greece to their empire and making Rome the most important city in the western Mediterranean. From here, until the end of the republic, citizens would engage in a race of prestige, supporting the construction of monuments and large public structures. Perhaps the most notable was the Teatro de Pompeu, built by General Pompeu, which was the first permanent theater ever built in the city. After Julius Caesar returned victorious from the Gallic conquests and subsequent civil war with Pompey, he embarked on a program of reconstruction unprecedented in Roman history. He would, however, be assassinated in 44 BC. with most of its projects still under construction, such as the Julia Basilica and the new house of the Roman Senate (Cúria Hostília). Roman Empire At the end of the republic, the city of Rome already boasted the grandeur of a true capital of an empire that dominated the entire Mediterranean. It was, at the time, the largest city in the world and probably the most populous city ever built until the 19th century. Estimates of population peaks range from less than 500,000 to more than 3.5 million, although more popular figures by historians range from 1 million to 2 million. The city's grandeur increased with the interventions of Augustus, who completed Caesar's projects and started his own, such as the Forum of Augustus, and the Ara Pacis ("Altar of Peace"), in celebration of the period of peace lived at the time. (Pax Romana), also redefining the administrative organization of the city in 14 regions. Augustus' successors tried to continue this building line leaving their own contributions in the city. The great fire of Rome during the reign of Nero would destroy much of the city but, in turn, would allow and spur a new wave of building development. By this time, Rome was a subsidized city, with about 15 to 25 percent of the grain supply being paid for by the government. Commerce and industry played a less significant role when compared to other large cities like Alexandria, but even so it was a large metropolis and the largest commercial and industrial center in the world, so it depended on other regions of the empire for its production. obtain primary genera and raw materials. To pay for the grain subsidies, taxes were introduced into the lives of the citizens of the provinces. Otherwise, Rome would be significantly smaller. Rome's population went into decline shortly after its peak in the early 2nd century. At the end of that century, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, a plague would ravage the citizens at a rate of about 2,000 a day. When, in 273, the Aurelian wall was completed, only a fraction of that maximum population of Rome remained: around 500,000. A historiographically designated third century crisis event outlines the disasters and political problems of the empire, which was practically collapsing. The fear and threat of barbarian invasions was evident in the decision of Emperor Aurelian who, in 273, ended the circumscription of the city with the massive Aurelian wall, whose perimeter was around 20 kilometers. Rome remained the capital of the Empire, although the emperors remained there for less and less time. At the end of Diocletian's political reforms, in the 3rd century, Rome would be deprived of its traditional role as administrative capital. empire instruction. Later, Western emperors would rule the empire from Mediolanus (modern-day Milan) or Ravenna, or cities in Gaul, and in 330 Constantine I established the second capital at Constantinople. By this time, part of the Roman aristocratic class was moving to the new centre, followed by many of the artists and craftsmen who lived in the city. The Arch of Galliano, one of the few remaining monuments of Ancient Rome from the 3rd century, served as a door in the Servian wall. The two side gates were destroyed in 1447 However, the senate, now deprived of its former political influence, preserved its social prestige. In 380, the two Augusts (Theodosius I in the East and Gratian in the West) declared that they recognized as the only religion in the empire "the faith which the Roman Church had received from Saint Peter". designated pope) into the most prominent religious figure in the Western Empire, as officially declared in 380, in the Edict of Thessalonica. Despite its increasingly passive role in the empire, Rome managed to preserve its historical prestige, and this period would see the last wave of building activity: Constantine's predecessor, Maxentius, built notable buildings such as the basilica in the Roman Forum, the Constantine erected his famous arch to celebrate his victory over the former, and Diocletian would build the greatest baths of all. Constantine also became the first patron of official Christian buildings in the city; he donated the Lateran Palace to the Pope and built the first great basilica, the ancient St. Peter's Basilica. Rome, however, remained a banner of paganism, ruled by aristocrats and senators. When the Visigoths appeared near the walls in 408, the senate and the prefect proposed pagan sacrifices, and it seems that even the pope would have agreed if this could save the city. Still, even the new walls did not prevent the city from being sacked, first by the Visigothic Alaric on August 24, 410, and then by the Vandal Genseric in 455 BC. and, later still, by the troops of General Ricimer (mostly made up of barbarians) on July 11, 472. The sacks of the city, unheard of since the time of Brennus, alarmed all Roman civilization: the fall of Rome meant the overthrow of the city. definitive of the old order. Many inhabitants fled, and by the end of the century, Rome's population had dropped to around 30,000. City plan during the Roman Empire Even so, the damage caused by the looting was probably exaggerated in the historiography of the time. The city was already in decline, and many of the monuments would have already been destroyed by the inhabitants themselves, who stole rocks from temples, public buildings and nearby statues for their personal purpose — it is even common to find statues and archaeological pieces these days. used in housing throughout the city. Furthermore, many of the churches would have also been built in this way. For example, the first basilica of Saint Peter was built using parts of the abandoned Circus of Nero. This attitude was a constant feature of Rome until the Renaissance. From the 4th century onwards, imperial edicts against the theft of stone and especially marble were common - their very repetition shows how ineffective they would be. On some occasions, new churches were created directly from pagan temples, probably transforming a pagan god or hero into the corresponding saint or martyr of Christianity. This is how the Temple of Romulus and Remus became the basilica of the twin saints Cosimo and Damião. Later, the Pantheon, "Temple of All Gods", would become the Church of All Martyrs. medieval rome Barbarian Invasions and Byzantine Rule During the Gothic War, Rome was besieged several times by the Byzantine and Ostrogoth armies. The Column of Seals, the last imperial monument in the Roman Forum The ancient basilica of São Lourenço Fora de Muros was built directly over the tomb of the favorite Roman martyr In 476, the last Emperor of the West, Romulus Augustus, who had been manipulated (like most emperors in this period) by his father, General Flavius Orestes, was deposed by barbarian troops led by Odoacer and exiled to the Egg Castle in Naples. . The fall of the Western Roman Empire would, however, have little impact on Rome. Odoacer, and later the Ostrogoths, would continue to rule Italy from Ravenna. However, the senate, despite having been deprived of its great influence for a long time, would continue to rule Rome, with the pope generally coming from a senatorial family. This situation would continue until the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire, led by Belisarius at the behest of Justinian, captured the city in 536. On December 17, 546, the Ostrogoths of Totila recaptured the city and again looted. Belisarius recaptured the city, only to lose it again in 549. Belisarius was replaced by Narses, who captured Rome definitively in 552, ending the Gothic War that devastated the Italian peninsula. The ongoing war around Rome between the 530s and 540s left it virtually abandoned and desolate. The aqueducts were no longer repaired, leading to a reduction in the population to around 30,000 concentrated on the banks of the River Tiber, in the Campo de Marte area, leaving the areas without water supply. There is even a legend that tells of a time when Rome would be completely uninhabited. The Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565) nevertheless tried to secure subsidies to Rome for the maintenance of public buildings, aqueducts and bridges, albeit without great success, as the entire peninsula of Italy was dramatically impoverished by recent wars. He also became the patron saint of the remaining scholars, orators, physicists and magistrates, in the hope that the younger ones would seek a better education. After the wars, the senate structures were re-established under the supervision of a prefect and other officers appointed and held accountable by the Roman (Byzantine) authorities in Ravenna. However, the pope had become one of the religious icons throughout the Byzantine Empire, and effectively more powerful locally than the senators or any other Byzantine officials. In practice, the local power of Rome rested with the ṕapa and, over the next few decades, the aristocratic senatorial power, as well as the Byzantine administration of Rome, would be absorbed by the Catholic Church. The reign of Justinian's nephew and successor Justin II (r. 565–578) was marked by the invasion of the Lombards led by Alboin (568). With the capture of the regions of Benevento, Lombardy, Piedmont, Spoleto and Tuscany, the invaders effectively restricted imperial authority to small swaths of land around coastal cities, including Ravenna, Naples, Rome and the area of the future Venice. The only portion still under Byzantine rule was Perugia, which allowed the connection, repeatedly besieged, between Rome and Ravenna. In 578, and again in 580, the senate, in its last recorded interventions, was forced to resort to the aid of Tiberius II (r. 578–582) against the approaching dukes, Faroaldo I of Spoleto and Zoto of Benevento. Maurice I (r. 582–602) would insert a new fact into the ongoing conflict by establishing an alliance with Childebert II of Austrasia (r. 575–595). The armies of the King of the Franks invaded the territories of Lombardy in 584, 585, 588 and 590, and the year before, Rome had already suffered a disastrous flood of the River Tiber, followed by a plague of the Black Death in 590 — the latter becoming famous for the legend associated with the procession of the new pope, Gregory I (r. 590–604), for the Tomb of Hadrian, which tells of an angel who appeared over the building, investing his flaming sword, as a sign that the pestilence would end . As of this year, the city was finally safe. In the meantime, Agilolfo, the new Lombard king (r. 591–616) managed to secure peace with Childebert II, reorganized his territories and continued his attacks on Naples and Rome in 592. With the emperor occupied with the wars on the eastern borders and the successive exarchs unable to defend Rome from invasion, Gregory took the initiative to initiate negotiations for a peace treaty, which would be reached in the autumn of 598—though only later recognized by Maurice—lasting until the end of his reign. The pope's position would be strengthened by the usurper Phocas (r. 602–610). Phocas recognized his primacy over the Patriarch of Constantinople and even decreed Pope Boniface III (607) as "representative of all the Churches". It was during Phocas' reign that the last imperial monument in the Roman Forum was erected, the column bearing his name. He also donated the Pantheon, which had been closed for centuries, to the pope, which probably saved it from destruction. Plan of Rome in the Middle Ages Medieval plan of Rome During the 7th century, an influx of Byzantine and religious officials from other parts of the empire culminated in a dominant presence of the Greek language and aristocracy. However, this strong Byzantine cultural influence did not always translate into political harmony between Rome and Constantinople. In the controversy over Monothelitism, the popes felt great pressure (even physically translating) for not being able to keep up with changes in Constantinople's theological orientations. In 653, Pope Martin I would be deported to Constantinople and, after a brief trial, exiled to Crimea, where he died. Shortly afterwards, in 663, Rome received its first imperial visit in the last two centuries, by Constantius II — its worst misfortune since the Gallic Wars, as the emperor tried to remove the metals that existed in the city, including those of the buildings and statues, to make them available for the construction of weaponry for the struggles against the Saracens. However, during the next half of the century, and despite the various tensions experienced, Rome and the Papacy continued to prefer Byzantine rule - partly because the alternative was Lombard domination and, on the other hand, because most of the food brought to Rome they came from papal states in other parts of the empire, particularly Sicily. In 727, Pope Gregory II refused to accept the decrees of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian, establishing iconoclasm. Leo's initial reaction was to try to kidnap the Pontiff, in vain, but later he would send a force of Byzantine troops, under the command of the Exarch Paul, who would be contained by the Lombards of Tuscia and Benevento. On November 1, 731, Gregory III convoked a synod in Rome to excommunicate the iconoclasts, whose response by the emperor was to confiscate large portions of papal territories in Sicily and Calabria and to transfer various areas of the pope's ecclesiastical dominion under Byzantine control for the Patriarch of Constantinople (the creation of the Patriarch of Grado, separating him from the jurisdiction of Aquileia). Rome, under the domination of the pope, was thus expelled from the Byzantine Empire. During this period, the Lombard Kingdom was going through a phase of rebirth, under the leadership of Liuprando. In 730 he sent a raid against Rome to punish the pope, who would have supported the Duke of Spoleto. Although protected by the massive city wall, the pope could do little against the Lombard king, who nevertheless managed to ally himself with the Byzantines. Gregory III, understanding the impotence of resisting such an alliance, was the first pope to ask for help, for the first time in an official way, from the kingdom of the Franks, then under the command of Charles Martel (739). Liuprando's successor Astolfo was even more aggressive: he conquered Ferrara and Ravenna, thus ending the Exarchate of Ravenna. Rome would probably be the next victim. In 754, Pope Stephen III went to France to appoint Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, as patricius Romanorum, i.e., protector of Rome. In August of the same year, the king and the pope crossed the Alps to defeat Astolfo, in Susa, managing to make him promise that he would give up the conflicts with the pope, giving him back the occupied territories. However, when Pepin returned to Saint-Denis, Astolfo broke his promise and besieged Rome for 56 days in 756, giving up as soon as they heard the news of Pepin's return to Italy. This time he would agree to hand over the promised territories to the pope, and thus the Papal States were born. In 771, the new king of the Lombards, Desiderius, devised a stratagem to definitively conquer Rome and depose Pope Stephen III. His main ally would be Paulus Afiarta, leader of the Lombard faction residing in the city. However, the plan would not succeed, and Stephen's successor Pope Hadrian I invoked Charlemagne to declare war on Desiderius, who would finally be defeated in 773. The Lombard kingdom was dissolved, and Rome was placed in the orbit of a new and great political institution. The Holy Empire The crown of the Holy Roman Empire (10th century), at Vienna's Schatzkammer On April 25, 799, while the new Pope, Leo III, was leading the traditional Lateran procession towards the Church of Saint Lawrence in Lucina, along Via Lata, the urban section of Via Flaminia (now Via del Corso), two nobles (followers of the predecessor, Hadrian), who did not like the pope's weaknesses towards Charlemagne, attacked the processional train leaving the pope seriously injured. Leo fled to meet the king of the Franks, and in November 800, the king entered Rome leading a strong army and a large number of Frankish bishops. Charlemagne then organized a court of law to decide whether Leo should continue the Papacy, or whether the conjurers' claims would be valid or not. However, this court was part of a carefully planned chain of events that would astound the world: The pope, naturally acquitted, and the exiled conspirators would crown Charlemagne as Roman Emperor of the West in St. 800. This attitude definitively ended Rome's loyalty to its "half", Constantinople, creating a rival empire which, after a series of conquests by Charlemagne, now encompassed most of the western Christian territories. The borders of the Holy Roman Empire between the years 962 to 1806, on the borders of modern Europe After Charlemagne's death, the lack of a figure of equal prestige caused some disagreements in the new institution. At the same time, the Roman Church faced the secular demands of the city itself, hastened by the conviction that the Roman, though impoverished and devalued, retained the right to elect the new Western Emperor. The pope claimed a territory stretching from Ravenna to Gaeta, which would mean sovereignty over Rome. However, this sovereignty would be continually disputed over the following centuries, and only the politically strongest popes managed to maintain it. The Papacy's main weakness was precisely the need for the election of new popes from time to time, in which the emerging noble families quickly sought to gain a leadership role. Neighboring powers, notably the Duchy of Spoleto and Tuscany, and later the emperors, learned how to take advantage of this internal weakness and consequently became arbiters between candidates. Thus, the atmosphere lived in Rome was close to anarchy. The most scandalous moment occurred in 897 with the exhumation of Formoso's corpse to be tried in court. These crises were exacerbated by the emergence of a new threat, the Arabs or, as the medieval Italians referred to them, the Saracens: these newcomers from North Africa had already conquered Sicily and their penetration into southern Italy was being conducted effectively. The infiltration of bands of pirates brought terror to the territories around Rome, to which Paschal I (r. 817–824) responded by relocating the remains of all the martyr saints within the city walls. Even so, this measure did not stop the Muslims from looting St. Peter's Basilica in 846. In 852, Leo IV commissioned the construction of a new wall around an area on the bank of the Tiber opposite the seven hills, which would come to be referred to as "Leonine City". commune of rome Interior of the Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the most beautiful churches in Rome built or rebuilt during the Middle Ages By this time, the renewed Roman Church was once again attracting pilgrims and prelates from all over the Christian world, bringing their money with them: despite the reduced population (ca. 30,000), Rome was once again becoming a dependent city. consumers, this time directed by the government bureaucracy. However, the other cities of the Italian peninsula, fundamentally run by new families that were overlapping the old aristocracy, were increasing their autonomy forming a new class of entrepreneurs, merchants and merchants. Shortly after the sack of Rome by the Normans in 1084, the city's reconstruction was supported by powerful families such as the Frangipane and Pierleoni, whose finance came from commerce and banks rather than land. Inspired by neighboring cities, such as Tivoli and Viterbo, the Roman people also began to consider the city's status as a commune and, consequently, greater autonomy vis-à-vis papal authority. Prompted by the words of the contested preacher Arnold of Brescia, an idealist and fierce opponent of ecclesiastical property and Church interference in internal affairs, the Romans rebelled in 1143. The Roman Senate and republic were thus reborn. However, 12th-century Rome shared little with that which had ruled the Mediterranean 700 years earlier, and the senate quickly found itself in a constant struggle to survive, alternating support for the pope and the Western Roman Empire, in an ambiguous political position. In Monteporzio, in 1167, during one of these alternations, the Roman troops would be defeated by the imperial forces of Frederick Barbarossa. Interestingly, the victorious enemy would soon be driven away by the plague and Rome would be kept safe. In 1188, the communal government would finally be recognized by Pope Clement III, obliged to pay large sums to the officers of the commune, and the 56 senators would become vassals of the Pope. The senate has always failed to fulfill its functions, which has led to several changes being attempted. Often only one senator headed the institution, which sometimes led to tyrannies that did not help the stability of the newborn organism. In 1204, the bad atmosphere set in again, this time confronting the family of Pope Innocent III and their rivals, the powerful Orsini, leading to new disturbances in the city. Many of the ancient buildings suffered destruction by the machines used between rival sides to encircle their enemies in the countless towers and fortresses, used in medieval Italy as a symbol of nobility. The Torre dei Conti was one of the many towers built by the noble families of Rome as a banner of their power and to defend the various fiefs that surrounded the city in the Middle Ages. Only one third of the tower remains. Struggles between the popes and Emperor Frederick II, also King of Naples and Sicily, would lead Rome to support the Ghibellines. To assert his loyalty, Frederick sent the Carroccio to the commune, which would have won the Lombards at the Battle of Cortenuova in 1234, and which would be exposed on the Capitoline Hill. Later that year, during another revolt against the pope, the Romans, led by Luca Savelli sacked the Lateran. Interestingly, Savelli was the son of Pope Honorius III and father of Honorius IV, although at this time family ties did not determine his loyalty. Rome was definitely not destined to evolve into an autonomous and stable commune, like other communes like Florence, Siena or Milan. The endless struggles between these noble families (Savelli, Orsini, Colonna and Annibaldi), the ambiguous alignment of the pope, the pride of the population that never abandoned the dream and splendor of the past, and the weakness of the republican institution would continually deprive the city of this possibility. . In an attempt to imitate other more successful communes, in 1252 the people elected a foreign senator, the Bolognese Brancaleone degli Andalò. Hoping to bring about peace in the city, Andalò suppressed the most powerful nobles (destroying about 140 towers), reorganized the working classes and issued a set of laws inspired by those applied in northern Italy. However, despite the rigid stance with which he faced adversity, he would die in 1258 with most of his reforms unfulfilled. Five years later, Charles I of Anjou, later King of Naples, would be elected senator. His entry into the city would only take place in 1265, and shortly afterwards he left it due to the need to face Conradino of Germania, the heir of the Hohenstaufen who was approaching to claim his family's rights over southern Italy. As of June of that year, the government of Rome was again characterized by a democratic republic, electing Henry of Castile as senator. Conradin and the Ghibelline faction would be defeated at the Battle of Tagliacozzo (1268) and thus the government of Rome passed back into Charles' hands. Nicholas III, a member of the Orsini, would be elected in 1277 and would transfer the seat of the Papacy from the Lateran Palace to the Vatican, as it was more protected, and would prohibit access to the status of senator of Rome by foreigners. Since he was a legitimate Roman, the people elected him to the senate, and the city again became ruled by the papal faction. Nevertheless, Charles was elected senator again in 1285 and, with the Sicilian Vespers, his charisma would be irreversibly affected. Thus he lost authority in the city, a place that would be occupied by another Roman and also pope, Honorius IV of the Savelli family. Babylonian captivity Celestine V's successor was an energetic Roman from the Caetani family, Pope Boniface VIII, who would have been involved by heredity in family disputes with his family's traditional rivals, the Colonna. However, this quarrel did not deflect him in his struggle to reassure the universal supremacy of the Holy See. In 1300, Boniface VIII celebrated the first Jubilee and founded the first University of Rome. The Jubilee would be, as it proved, an important step for Rome, as it would increase its international prestige; consequently, the city's economy would see a boost, due to the flow of pilgrims. Boniface died in 1303, shortly after the humiliation of the Attack of Anagni (Schiaffo di Anagni, "Slap of Anagni") which marked the rule of the Papacy by the King of France, marking a new period of decline for Rome. For this reason, Boniface's successor, Pope Clement V, never entered the city, beginning the famous period of the Avignon Papacy, also known as the "Avignon captivity" (in allusion to the Babylonian captivity), in which the Pope moved the seat of the Catholic Church to Avignon, a situation that would last for more than 70 years. As a consequence, the independence of local power was verified, although it proved to be very unstable; also the lack of financial income previously supported by the Church caused a deep decline of Rome. For more than a century, Rome stopped building development. Worse, many of the city's monuments, including the main churches, were showing the first signs of decay. The Pope's Return to Rome Cola di Rienzo dawned the Capitol in 1347 to create a new Roman Republic. Although short-lived, this attempt was recorded in the statue near the staircase leading to Michelangelo's square. Despite the decline and the absence of the pope, Rome would not lose its spiritual prestige: in 1341 the famous poet Francesco Petrarch traveled to Rome to be distinguished as a poet on the Capitoline Hill. However, the nobility and the poor were lining up to demand the return of the pope. Among the various ambassadors who traveled to Avignon during this period, the bizarre and eloquent figure of Cola di Rienzo stands out. As his power over the population increased, on May 30, 1347 he conquered the Capitol at the head of the population enthusiastically. Though short-lived, the period of his leadership over the population of Rome turned out to be one of the most important moments in the city's medieval history; Glue struggled to spread the rejuvenating aura of the common concept of an eventual Italian independence, at the center of a politically confused dream similar to the prestige of Ancient Rome. Later, assuming power in a dictatorial way, he assumed the title of "tribune", in a clear reference to the plebeian magistracy of the republican era. Di Rienzo also considered his status equivalent to that of the Holy Roman Emperor. On August 1, 1347, he conferred Roman citizenship on all Italian cities and prepared for the election of a Roman Emperor for Italy. As a containment measure, the pope declared Di Rienzo a heretic, criminal and pagan, manipulating public opinion to the point where it began to distance itself. On December 15, Di Renzo was forced to flee. In August 1354, Di Rienzo became the protagonist again, when Cardinal Gil Alvarez De Albornoz entrusted him with the post of "senator of Rome" in the course of his program of certification of papal government in the Papal States. In October, the tyrannical Cola, who was once again becoming unpopular because of his disputed behavior and heavy debts, was murdered in a dispute provoked by the powerful Colonna family. In April 1355, Charles IV of Bohemia entered the city for the traditional coronation ritual as emperor. His visit was attended with great displeasure by the citizens, as he was not well endowed financially, having received the crown from a cardinal rather than the pope, and from being away a few days after the coronation. With the emperor back on his land, Albornoz was now able to regain some control over the city, even while remaining in the safety of his citadel at Montefiascone in northern Lazio. The senators, now appointed directly by the pope, were chosen from several cities throughout Italy, although the city was independent. The senate now included six judges, five notaries, six marshals, several family members, twenty knights and twenty armed men. Albornoz was able to suppress the traditionally aristocratic families, and the "democratic" faction felt confident enough to initiate an aggressive policy. In 1362, Rome declared war on Velletri, whose repercussions resulted in a civil war: the rural faction hired a group of condottieri, the Del Cappelo (the "Hat's"), while the Romans bought the services of German and Hungarian troops, plus to its own 600 cavalry and 22,000 infantry units. During this period, all of Italy was swept away by the relentless condottieri groups. Many of the Savelli, Orsini and Annibaldi, expelled from Rome, became leaders of these military units. When the war with the Velletri ended, Rome surrendered again to the pope, Urban V, on condition that Albornoz was forbidden to enter Rome. On October 6, 1367, in answer to the prayers of Saint Bridget and Francesco Petrarch, Urban V finally moved to the city. During his presence Charles IV was crowned again (October 1368). Around this time, the Byzantine Emperor John V Palaiologos also went to Rome to request a crusade against the Ottoman Empire, although without success. A few years later, unhappy with the atmosphere of the city, Urban V returned to Avignon on September 5, 1370. His successor, Gregory XI, scheduled his return to Rome for May 1372, but, again, the French cardinals, with the support of their king, managed to persuade him. This was how the pope remained until January 17, 1377, when Gregory XI re-installed the Holy See in Rome. Nevertheless, the incoherent behavior of his successor, the Italian Urban VI, would provoke in 1378 the Great Western Schism, which would destroy any legitimate attempt to improve the conditions of Rome, in decline. modern rome The Renaissance in Rome The School of Athens, 1509, Stanza della Segnatura, painting by Raphael Sanzio, Vatican Museums During the pontificate of Pope Nicholas V (p. 19 March 1447), the Renaissance entered Rome at the same time that the city became the center of humanism. Nicholas V was the first pope to include academics and artists in the Roman court, such as Lorenzo Valla and Vespasiano da Bisticci. On September 4, 1449, Nicholas announced a Jubilee for the following year, the consequence of which would be a new influx of pilgrims from all over Europe. The crowd would be such that, in December, on the Santo Angelo bridge, around 200 people would be "run over" or drowned in the Tiber River. That same year, the plague reappeared in the city, and Nicholas V fled Rome. Despite the damnable attitude, Nicholas V managed to stabilize the temporal power of the Papacy, insulating it from the emperor's interference. Thus, the coronation and marriage of Emperor Frederick II, on March 16, 1452, was therefore nothing more than a civil ceremony. The Papacy now firmly controlled Rome. Stefano Porcari's attempt to restore the republic was ruthlessly suppressed in January 1453. Porcari would be hanged together with his assistants, Francesco Gabadeo, Pierto de Monterotondo, Battista Sciarra and Angiolo Ronconi. Nevertheless, the pope's reputation would be questioned when, at the beginning of the execution, Nicholas V presented himself too drunk to confirm the graces he had granted to Sciarra and Ronconi. Nicolau V was also the designer of the urban redevelopment, together with Leon Battista Alberti, which included the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica. Nicholas V's successor, Callisto III, did not continue Nicholas' cultural policy, devoting himself to his greatest passion, the love for his nephews. The Tuscan Pius II, who took the reins after his death in 1458, proved to be a great humanist, although he did little for Rome. It was during his pontificate that Lorenzo Valla demonstrated that the Donation of Constantine had been a forgery. Pius II was also the first pope to resort to armed struggle, in a campaign against the rebellious Savelli barons of the suburbs of Rome, in 1461. A year later, with the transfer of the head of the Apostle Saint Andrew to Rome, a new influx took place. of pilgrims. The pontificate of Pope Paul II (1464 - 1471) was notable only for the reintroduction of Carnival, which would become a very popular festival in Rome during the following centuries. In the same year (1468), a conspiracy against the Pope, organized by intellectuals from the Roman Academy, founded by Pomponio Leto, was dismantled, resulting in the imprisonment of those involved in Castel Sant'Angelo. However, the most important pontificate was undoubtedly that of Sixtus IV. To favor a family member, Girolamo Riario, he instigated the conspiracy on the part of the Pazzi (Congiura dei Pazzi) against the Medici family of Florence (26 April 1478) and, in Rome, he fought the Colonna and the Orsini. Despite the great costs of this policy of intrigue and war, Sixtus IV was a true patron of art in the same vein as Nicholas V: he reopened the academy and reorganized the Collegio degli Abbreviatori and, in 1471, began the construction of the Vatican Library, whose first curator was Platinum. The library was officially founded on June 15, 1475. Sixtus had several churches restored, including Santa Maria del Popolo, the Virgin Water and the Hospital of the Holy Spirit, he had some streets paved and was also responsible for the construction of a famous bridge over the Tiber which is now known by its name. However, his biggest project was the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican Palace. Its decoration summoned some of the most renowned artists of the time, including Mino da Fiesole, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, Luca Signorelli and Pinturicchio — already in the 16th century, Michelangelo painted it with what would become his work. raw material, transforming the Chapel into one of the most spectacular monuments in the world. Sixtus died on August 12, 1484, and was considered the first king-pope of Rome. During the pontificate of his successors Innocent VIII and Alexander VI (1492-1503), Rome suffered from chaos, corruption and emerging nepotism. In the time interval between the death of the first and the election of the second, there were 220 murders in the city. Alexander VI had to face Charles VIII of France, who invaded Italy in 1494 and entered Rome on December 31 of that year. The pope was forced to barricade himself in Castel Sant'Angelo, which had become a real fortress by Antonio da Sangallo, but the skillful Alexander would know how to win the king's help, appointing his son César Borgia as military adviser in the subsequent invasion of the Kingdom of Naples. Rome was thus safe. However, as the king moved south, the pope shifted his position, aligning himself with the anti-French league of Italian states that finally forced Charles to retreat to France. Alexander, considered the most nepotistic pope of all, favored his implacable son Caesar Borgia, creating for him a personal duchy consisting of some of the territories belonging to the Papal States, and banishing the Orsini family, Caesar's most insistent enemy, from Rome. In 1500, the city celebrated a new jubilee, but the streets became increasingly unsafe, especially at night, when they were controlled by bands of criminals, the bravi. Nevertheless, it was Caesar himself who assassinated Alfonso de Bisceglie, his sister Lucrezia and, presumably, the pope's son Giovanni de Gandia. The Renaissance had a major impact on the appearance of Rome with works such as Michelangelo's Pietà ("Piety") and the Borgia Apartment frescoes, all made during the pontificate of Innocent. Rome reached its height of splendor under Pope Julius II (1503 - 1513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. During these twenty years, Rome had become the greatest center of art in the whole world. The old St. Peter's Basilica was demolished and a new one started over. to The city housed artists such as Bramante, who built the Tempietto de San Pietro in Montorio and was the author of a major project to renovate the Vatican City, Raphael, who in Rome became the most famous painter in Italy for his frescoes in the Nicolina Chapel, Villa Farnesina, Raphael's Rooms, among other famous works of art, and Michelangelo, who initiated the decoration of the Sistine Chapel ceiling and executed the famous statue of Moses for the tomb of Julius. Rome partially lost its religious character to progressively become a true Renaissance city, with a large number of popular festivities, horse races, parties, intrigues and episodes of neglect. The economy stabilized with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, who was a friend of Rafael's and also a sponsor of the arts. Before his untimely death, Raphael was also, and for the first time, a promoter for the conservation of the ruins of antiquity. The Sack of Rome and the Counter-Reformation In 1527, the ambiguous policy followed by the second Pope of the Mécic family, Pope Clement VII, resulted in a dramatic sack of the city by the imperial troops of Charles V of the Holy Empire, which ravaged the city for days. Many of the citizens were murdered or sought shelter outside the walls. The Pope himself was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo. The sack thus marked the end of the era of greatest splendor in modern Rome. The Jubilee of 1525 resulted in a farce, with Martin Luther's claims to instill criticism and contempt for the pope's greed for all of Europe. Rome's prestige would be met with the dismemberment of the churches of Germany and England. Still, Pope Paul III (1534 - 1549) strove to appease the situation by calling the Council of Trent, although he was, ironically, the most nepotistic of the popes. Paul III even separated Parma and Piacenza from the Papal States to create an independent duchy for his own son, Pedro Luís Farnésio. He continued, however, to patronize art, attending Michelangelo's Last Judgment, asking him to renovate the Capitol and assist in the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica. After the initial shock of the sack of Rome, he also summoned the brilliant architect Giuliano da Sangallo the Younger to fortify the walls of the "Leonine City". The need to renew religious customs became evident with the period of vacancy that followed the death of Paul III, with the streets of Rome becoming the stage for satires on the cardinals who attended the conclave. His immediate successors were two figures of little authority who could do nothing to escape the real sovereignty of Spain over Rome. Paul IV, elected in 1555, was a member of the anti-Spain faction. His policy would result in a new siege of the city by the troops of the Neapolitan viceroy in 1556. Paul appealed for peace, but was forced to accept the supremacy of Philip II of Spain. He was one of the most detested popes of all and, after his death, the population revolted by setting fire to the palace of the Holy Inquisition and destroying its marble statue on the Capitol. Paul's perspective on the Counter-Reformation was evident in the ordinance to confine the Jews to a central area of Rome, around the Portico of Octavia, thus creating the famous Roman Ghetto. The Counter-Reformation would be considered only by his successors, the moderate Pius IV and the severe Pius V. Although the former was a nepotist, lover of the splendours of the court, he allowed the introduction of more severe customs by his adviser, Charles Borromeo, who was about to become one of Rome's most popular figures. Pius V and Borromeo gave the city the true character of the Counter-Reformation. All pomp was removed from the court, the jesters expelled, and cardinals and bishops were forced to live in the city. Blasphemy and the use of concubines were severely punished; prostitutes were expelled or confined to districts set aside for that purpose. The Inquisition's power within the city was readjusted, and the palace rebuilt with a new space for prisons. During this period, Michelangelo opened Porta Pia and transformed the Baths of Diocletian into the spectacular basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli, where Pius IV was buried. Fontana dell'Acqua Felice in St. Bernard Square The pontificate of his successor, Pope Gregory XIII, was a failure. His measures would stir up new riots in the streets of Rome. The French writer and philosopher Montaigne argued that "life and possessions were never more secure than during the time of Gregory XIII, perhaps", and that a confraternity even carried out homosexual marriages in the church of San Giovanni a Porta Latina. The courtesans so repressed by Pius now became prostitutes who worked openly in the streets. Sixtus V had, however, a distinct temperament. Although his pontificate was short (1585- 1590), became one of the most effective in the history of Rome. Sixtus was even stricter than Pius V, and earned nicknames such as castigamatti ("punisher of the mad"), papa di ferro ("iron Pope"), dictator and even, ironically, the devil, as no other pope preceded him in the persecution. so determined of Church reform and morals. Sixtus profoundly reorganized the administration of the Papal States, and cleansed the cities of Rome of all braves, whores, procurators, duels, and the like. Neither nobles nor cardinals considered themselves exempt from the policing carried out by Sixtus. The tax money, which was no longer destined for corruption, allowed for an ambitious building program to exist. Some older aqueducts were restored, and a new one was built, the Acqua Felice (from the name of Sisto, Felice Peretti). New houses were also built in the desolate districts of Esquilino, Viminal and Quirinal, while other houses in the center were demolished to open new and wider roads. Sixtus' aim was to make Rome a better destination for pilgrims, and new roads would allow better access to the basilicas. The old obelisks were moved or erected to beautify Saint John Lateran, Saint Mary Major and Saint Peter, as well as Piazza del Popolo, in front of the Santa Maria del Popolo church. italian unification Main article: Italian unification Proclamation of the Roman Republic The government by the papacy was interrupted by the brief Roman Republic (1798), instituted under the influence of the French Revolution. Another Roman Republic emerged in 1849, following the revolutions of 1848. Two of the most influential figures in Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, fought on the side of the republic. The return of Pius IX to Rome, with the help of French troops, marked the exclusion of Rome from the unification process of the Second Italian War of Independence and the Expedition of the Thousand, after which the entire Italian peninsula, with the exception of Rome and the Veneto, would be unified under the House of Savoy. In 1870, with the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, the French Emperor Napoleon III ceased to ensure the protection of the Papal States. Shortly after, the Italian government declared war on the states. The Italian army entered Rome on 20 September, opening a breach in the wall, the Porta Pia, after a three-hour bombardment. Rome and all of Latium would be annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian government then offered Pius IX the possibility of preserving the "Leonine City", although the offer was rejected as its acceptance translated into the recognition of the legitimacy of the government of the Kingdom of Italy over its former domains. Pius IX thus declared himself a "prisoner of the Vatican" although, in fact, he was never denied the right to travel. Officially, the capital would not be moved from Florence to Rome until 1871. Nowadays Today's Rome not only reflects the stratification of the various epochs throughout its history, but is also a contemporary metropolis. The vast historic center contains areas dating from Ancient Rome, medieval times, several palaces and artistic treasures from the Renaissance, many fountains, churches and palaces from the Baroque, as well as many other examples of Art Nouveau, neoclassicism, modernism, rationalism and any other. artistic styles of the 19th and 20th centuries (indeed, the city is considered an encyclopedia and a living museum of the last 3000 years of western art history). The historic center practically coincides with the limits of the walls of imperial Rome. Some areas were reorganized after the unification (1880–1910 - Roma Umbertina), and some additions and adaptations were made during the Fascist period, such as the much-discussed Via dei Fori Imperiali, from Via della Conciliazione, opposite the Vatican (for whose construction a large part of the old Borgo was destroyed), the establishment of new Quartieri (including EUR, San Basilio, Garbatella, Cinecittà, Trullo, Quarticciolo and, on the coast, the restructuring of Ostia) and the inclusion of border towns (Labaro, Osteria del Curato, Quarto Miglio, Capannelle, Pisana, Torrevecchia, Ottavia, Casalotti). These expansions were necessary to accommodate the exponential increase in population, a consequence of the centralization of the Italian State. During World War II, Rome suffered few bombings (mostly in San Lorenzo), and was declared an open city. Rome fell to the Allies on June 4, 1944, and was the first capital of the Axis nations to fall. After the war, Rome continued to expand due to the growth of centralized administration that resulted from unification and to industry, with the creation of new quartieri and suburbs. The official population is currently around 2.5 million; during working hours, workers increase the figure to 3.5 million, which represents a dramatic increase from previous figures. 130,000 in 1825, 244,000 in 1871, 692,000 in 1921 and 1,600,000 in 1931. Rome hosted the 1960 Olympic Games, for which it used many of the sites from antiquity, such as Villa Borghese and the Baths of Caracalla as sources of income. For the Olympic Games, new structures were created, such as the new Olympic Stadium (later enlarged and remodeled for the 1990 FIFA World Cup), the Villaggio Olimpico (Olympic Village, created to welcome athletes and later restructured as a district residential), etc. Many of Rome's monuments were restored by the Italian state and the Vatican for the 2000 Jubilee. Facade of the Quirinal Palace, official residence of the President of the Italian Republic As the capital of Italy, Rome is home to the nation's main institutions, such as the Presidency of the Republic, the government, its ministries, the parliament, the main judicial courts, and diplomatic representatives in Italy from all other countries, and Vatican City ( Interestingly, Rome also hosts, in part of Italian territory, the Vatican Embassy, the only case of an embassy within the limits of its own territory). Many institutions are housed in Rome, namely those of a cultural and scientific nature — such as the American Institute, the British School, the French Academy, the Scandinavian Institutes, the German Archaeological Institute — for the nobility of schooling in the Eternal City - and other humanitarian institutions. , such as FAO. Rome is currently one of the most important tourist destinations in the world, not only due to the incalculable immensity of archaeological and artistic treasures, but also for the charisma of its unique traditions and the majesty of the magnificent villas (parks). Among the most significant resources are the numerous museums (such as the Capitoline Museums, the Vatican Museums and the Borghese Gallery), the aqueducts, fountains, churches, palaces, historic buildings, monuments and ruins of the Roman Forum, and the catacombs. Among the hundreds of churches in Rome are the five major basilicas of the Catholic Church: the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano ("St. , Basilica di San Paolo fuori le Mura ("Saint Paul outside the Walls"), Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore ("Saint Mary Major"), and Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura ("St. The bishop of Rome is the pope; during pastoral activity in the city, he is assisted by a vicar (typically a cardinal).

I want with great satisfaction to thank the great people of Rome and simply say that I did this work with an incentive to show everyone the great history of Rome and its cultures because as a writer I feel closer to a path of peace and love for a great understanding and work more than conquered of all my qualities and thank you very much to everyone at the Edu academy and thank you very much!

By: Roberto Barros